UNHCR uuringu raport ja kutse veebiseminarile

Study on the assessment of the

existing referral pathways for forcibly

displaced and stateless people who

have experienced gender-based

violence (GBV), including sexual

exploitation and abuse (SEA) in

Estonia

FINAL REPORT

May 2025

The study is conducted by Prof. Lehte Roots and Melita Sogomonjan, PhD

The current study is commissioned by the UNHCR Representation for the Nordic and Baltic Countries

Study on the assessment of the existing referral pathways for forcibly displaced and stateless people

who have experienced GBV, including SEA in Estonia

2

Mariia Khrapunenko

Senior Field Associate

UNHCR Estonia

Email: [email protected]

Phone: +372 5631 1239

Study on the assessment of the existing referral pathways for forcibly displaced and stateless people

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Table of Content

Abbreviations and definitions ..................................................................................... 4

Executive summary .................................................................................................... 6

1. Introduction .......................................................................................................... 8

2. An overview of a situation with GBV and SEA in Estonia .................................. 10

3. Methodology of the study ................................................................................... 16

3.1 Phases of the Research and Research Questions .................................... 16

4. Legal and policy measures for the protection of victims of GBV and SEA in

Estonia ..................................................................................................................... 21

4.1 An overview of existing legislation ............................................................. 21

4.2 Legal definition of a victim .......................................................................... 22

4.3 Victims in criminal procedures ................................................................... 23

4.4 Right to linguistic assistance, interpretation and translation ....................... 23

4.5 Assessment of individual protection needs ................................................ 24

4.6 Right to be informed ................................................................................... 25

4.7 Rights to legal representation .................................................................... 25

4.8 Right to access victim support services ..................................................... 25

5. An overview of existing referral pathways and service providers ....................... 27

5.1 Available support services provided by the service providers .................... 27

6. Results ............................................................................................................... 33

6.1 Interviews with victim support service providers and stakeholders ............ 33

6.2 Interviews with individuals holding temporary status in Estonia ................. 39

7. Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 42

8. Recommendations ............................................................................................. 47

References ............................................................................................................... 50

Annex I - List of organizations and people contacted ............................................... 55

Annex II – TAI permission ........................................................................................ 57

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Abbreviations and definitions

Gender-Based Violence (GBV)

Gender-based violence (GBV) is ‘an umbrella term for any harmful act that is perpetrated against a person’s will and that is based on socially ascribed (i.e. gender) differences between males and females. It includes acts that inflict physical, sexual or mental harm or suffering, threats of such acts, coercion, and other deprivations of liberty. These acts can occur in public or in private’.1

ERC Estonian Refugee Council

Health Care Service (HCS)

As defined in the Healthcare Services Organization Act Article 2 (1), HCS is the activity of a health worker to prevent, diagnose and treat illness, injury or poisoning with the aim of alleviating a person's ailments, preventing the deterioration of his health or exacerbation of the disease, and restoring health.

Sexual Exploitation and Abuse (SEA)

The abuse or attempted abuse (including threatened physical intrusion of a sexual nature, whether by force or under unequal or coercive conditions) on an individual's vulnerability, power imbalance, or trust, to obtain sexual favours.

Applicant for international protection status

Act on Granting International Protection to Aliens1 § 3. Applicant for international protection and application for international protection (1) An applicant for international protection (hereinafter also applicant) is an alien who has submitted an application for international protection (hereinafter also application) in respect to which final decision has not been made.

PBGB Police and Border Guard Board

Refugee The 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees (the 1951 Convention), at Article 1A(2), defines a refugee as any person who ‘…owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of [their] nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail [themself] of the protection of that country; or who, not having a nationality and being outside the country of [their] former habitual residence is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to return to it’.

______________________

1 IASC GBV Guidelines for Integrating GBV Interventions in Humanitarian Action, 2015, Part 1, https://gbvguidelines.org; and UNHCR master glossary of terms | UNHCR.

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Subsidiary protection

A form of international protection granted in some countries to persons, who do not meet the Convention definition of a refugee but who face a real risk of serious harm in their country of origin or former habitual residence. This includes the death penalty or execution, torture or inhuman or degrading treatment, or a serious and individual threat to their life or person due to indiscriminate violence in situations of armed conflict.

SIB Social Insurance Board

UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, the UN Refugee Agency

Victim Support Services (VSS)

As defined in the Victim Support Act Article 15 (2), VSS are: 1. basic victim support service; 2. psychosocial support in the event of crisis; 3. women's support centre service 4. sexual violence crisis support; 5. service for victims in human trafficking; 6. restorative justice services; 7. support for abandonment of violence; 8. mental health assistance in support of recovery from trauma.

Victim/ Survivor2 As defined in the Code of Criminal Procedure, Article 37 (1), victim is an individual, or a legal person, whose legally protected interests have suffered direct harm because of a criminal offence that targeted them, or as a result of an unlawful act committed by a person incapable of forming the corresponding mens rea. In a situation where an attempt is made to commit a criminal offence, a person is a victim also if, instead of the protected interest that was targeted, harm is dealt to an interest that is subsumed by that interest. The State or another public authority is a victim only if the harm dealt to its legally protected interest gives rise to a pecuniary claim which can be pursued in criminal proceedings. A person is a victim also in a situation in which a criminal offence or an unlawful act committed by a person incapable of forming the corresponding mens rea caused the death of a person close to them and they have suffered harm as a result of the death. According to legal definition provided by Victim Support Act Article 4 (2), a victim is a person who is harmed or dies because of a crime, violence or event of crisis.

VSA Victim Support Act3

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2 In this study, victims/ survivors are considered forcibly displaced and stateless individuals who have experienced gender- based violence (GBV) including sexual exploitation and assault (SEA). 3 Estonia, Victim Support Act, 14.12.2022, https://www.riigiteataja.ee/en/eli/ee/Riigikogu/act/503042023004/consolide.

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Executive summary

This report aims to assess the existing referral pathways for forcibly displaced4 and

stateless people who have experienced gender-based violence (GBV), including

sexual exploitation and abuse (SEA) in Estonia. For the sake of clarity and readability,

this report refers to the main target group as individuals who have experienced GBV,

including SEA.

The study was conducted from October 2024 to January 2025 and reflects the results

of the desk research, interviews conducted and assessment of current legislation. The

results of the study have shown that referral pathways for forcibly displaced and

stateless survivors5 of GBV are in place, and that support services are generally

accessible to refugees and individuals with temporary or subsidiary protection. At the

same time, the findings point to some challenges in how these pathways function in

practice. Limited coordination between institutions, gaps in professional capacity, and

the partial involvement of key actors can affect how support is delivered and accessed.

Although health institutions provide GBV-related services, they typically operate

independently from other institutions, resulting in fragmented support rather than as a

more cohesive system. These issues may reduce the overall effectiveness of the

referral process.

Individuals who have experienced GBV, including SEA, can seek support from the

Police and Border Guard Board (PBGB), Social Insurance Board (SIB), medical

professionals, and NGOs. These entities forward the cases to the victim support

service (VSS), managed by Estonia’s SIB. Information about contacting the police is

provided upon arrival in Estonia. Nevertheless, the background research and

interviews revealed variations in awareness of these services, availability of

information, and accessibility - particularly regarding the language in which these

services are offered. Furthermore, Estonia is using MARAC (Multi-Agency Risk

Assessment Conference) model as a framework for action to support the survivors of

GBV and SEA. MARAC involves risk identification and is using DASH (Domestic

Abuse, Stalking and Honour Based Violence) risk assessment tools and networking

to develop and implement an intervention plan. The members of the MARAC network

develop and implement an intervention plan, they are involved in case management

network meetings and share information and evaluation of the results.

In this study, representatives of 15 organizations were interviewed to get more insight

into practices involving forcibly displaced and stateless people, who are survivors of

______________________

4 In this report “forcibly displaced people” are defined according to the UNHCR terminology – these are people, forced to flee their countries due to conflict, violence, persecution, or human rights violations. This is not a legal term and used as an abbreviated, generic term to designates all people falling, or considered likely to fall, under UNHCR mandate, such as refugees, asylum-seekers, and those under temporary protection. 5 In this report, the terms victim of GBV and survivor of GBV are used interchangeably. While UNHCR and other international organisations favour the term survivor, reflecting a rights-based and empowering approach, the Estonian national context predominantly employs the term victim in legal, policy, and service delivery frameworks. To respect both contexts and ensure clarity, both terms are used with the same intended meaning.

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GBV and SEA. The study revealed that there is no discrimination based on nationality

or legal status, and every person can access support services for help. However,

providing and obtaining information in languages other than Estonian, English, or

Russian presents challenges, as translation services are required and can be limited

for less common languages in Estonia. Between October 2024 and January 2025,

interviews were also conducted with persons holding temporary protection status to

gather information about their experiences, assess the quality of services received,

and evaluate their awareness of available support services.

The main barriers to accessing services include language difficulties, cultural

differences, and survivors’ self-perception. Recognizing oneself as a survivor of

violence and seeking help from the police can be challenging. While there is general

awareness about GBV, the sensitivity of these issues, combined with cultural factors,

likely contributes to underreporting among forcibly displaced individuals. Minor

limitations of the VSS are presented in the report, along with suggestions how to

improve the services.

The visual overview of the referral pathways to the needed services of the forcibly

displaced survivors of GBV (including SEA) are also presented schematically below.

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1. Introduction

This study aims to assess the effectiveness of the existing referral pathways for

forcibly displaced (refugees, asylum-seekers) and stateless people who have

experienced GBV and SEA6 in Estonia and provide recommendations for improving

service accessibility. The study focuses on the adult (18+ years of age) forcibly

displaced and stateless people.

Effectiveness in this study means the accessibility and availability of the services

to forcibly displaced and stateless persons.

Gender-based violence, as defined by the Council of Europe, is any act of violence

based on gender identity. It broadly includes harm inflicted on individuals or groups

due to their actual or perceived sex, gender, sexual orientation, or gender identity.7

GBV includes mental, physical, and sexual violence, as well as threats, coercion, and

manipulation, often seen in intimate partner violence, child marriage, female genital

mutilation, and "honour crimes".8

UNHCR’s 2020 Policy on Gender-Based Violence defines GBV as harmful acts based

on socially ascribed gender differences, including physical, sexual, or mental harm,

threats, and coercion, occurring publicly or privately. It highlights GBV’s roots in

patriarchal power dynamics and gender discrimination, targeting women, girls, and

individuals defying gender norms. Previously referred to as "sexual and gender-based

violence" (SGBV), UNHCR now uses "gender-based violence" (GBV) to emphasize

its systemic nature.9

Sexual exploitation refers to the abuse or attempted abuse of an individual's

vulnerability, power imbalance, or trust, to obtain sexual favours.10 This may involve

offering money or other forms of social, economic, or political advantages, and

includes trafficking and prostitution.11

Sexual abuse means the actual or threatened physical intrusion of a sexual nature,

whether by force or under unequal or coercive conditions such as sexual slavery,

pornography, child abuse and sexual assault.12

The prevalence of GBV among females tends to increase during forced

______________________

6 Later throughout the report, for better readability only the term GBV is used, but by it the authors mean GBV, including SEA. 7 Council of Europe, What is gender-based violence?, https://www.coe.int/en/web/gender-matters/what-is-gender-based- violence. 8 UNHCR, Gender-based violence, https://www.unhcr.org/what-we-do/protect-human-rights/protection/gender-based-violence. 9 UNHCR, UNHCR master glossary of terms, https://www.unhcr.org/glossary, see also UNHCR Policy on the Prevention of, Risk Mitigation and Response to GBV, 02 October 2020, https://www.unhcr.org/media/unhcr-policy-prevention-risk-mitigation- and-response-gender-based-violence-2020. 10 UNHCR, What is sexual exploitation, abuse and harassment?, https://www.unhcr.org/asia/what-we-do/how-we-work/tackling- sexual-exploitation-abuse-and-harassment/what-sexual-exploitation. 11 Ibid. 12 Ibid.

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displacements.13 Although women face a higher risk of GBV, there is limited data on

the overall number of people affected by these forms of violence in the EU.14

Forcibly displaced individuals as well as stateless people also face higher risks of GBV

in a homogenic relationship.15 This research area has been overlooked, largely due to

reluctance to report incidents. The most common reasons among forcibly displaced

and stateless individuals who have experienced GBV that hinder them from reporting

such cases are the forcible displacement background and economic situation;

personal beliefs and fears (e.g., fear to be isolated of family and/or community, fear of

not being believed, fear of discrimination, etc.); little knowledge of rights, support

services, and language skills; limited access to support services and lack of legal

protection, as well as mistrust towards state authorities.16

The large-scale arrival of refugees from the Middle East, Ukraine, and other regions

has placed governments under pressure to meet the needs of forcibly displaced

people. Nordic countries have established social insurance systems, protective legal

measures, and support services for forcibly displaced and stateless individuals who

have experienced GBV. Estonia has adopted some practices from Nordic countries

when developing similar systems, but still lacks sufficient experience in working

effectively with individuals who have diverse cultural backgrounds, experiences of

forced displacement, and varying language skills.

Therefore, the current study aims to understand how effective the existing referral

pathways are and what services are needed to ensure the rights of forcibly displaced

and stateless people who have experienced GBV in Estonia.

______________________

13 S. R. Fatema, et.al. (2019), Women's health-related vulnerabilities in natural disasters: a systematic review protocol, BMJ Open, 9 (12):e 032079. Doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2019-032079. 14 A. Wells jt. (2019), Gender-based violence against refugee & asylum-seeking women - a training tool. Training Manual CCM- GBV project. SOLWODI Deutschland e.V. https://www.giraffaonlus.it/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/training-manual-CCM- GBV_EN-r.pdf (Accessed 20 November 2024). 15 P. Laskey jt. (2019). A systematic literature review of intimate partner violence victimization: An inclusive review across gender and sexuality. Aggression and Violent Behaviour, 47, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2019.02.014. 16 Ibid.

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2. Overview of GBV and SEA in Estonia

To analyse the practical obstacles to access the VSS in Estonia, it is important to

highlight the challenges of working with individuals who have experienced SEA

or GBV. The state has developed various programmes, referral pathways, and

legislative amendments to support GBV survivors.

The Ministry of Justice of Estonia has adopted a strategy for prevention of GBV and

human trafficking and exploitation as the part of the Violence Prevention Agreement

2021-2025.17 In 2024, the Ministry of Justice published an analysis of the compliance

of Sexual Autonomy-Related Offences with the Council of Europe Convention on

Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence (the

Istanbul Convention).18 The studies highlight that the offenses against sexual self-

determination, specifically §§ 141, 141¹, and 143 of the Penal Code, do not fully

comply with Article 36 of the Istanbul Convention (the concept of the absence of

voluntary consent for all sexual activities).19 This essentially also creates confusion

about the concept of a victim of sexual exploitation.

In March 2024, the research centre Praxis released findings from the study Pretrial

Investigation of Sexual Violence.20 The study highlights improvements in Estonia's

pre-trial procedures for sexual violence, emphasizing an increased survivor-centred

approach and improved awareness and attitudes among those conducting

investigations. However, the study identifies several remaining obstacles that may

further victimize survivors of sexual violence, erode trust in the legal system, and

impede the prosecution of perpetrators. The study also explores the potential

introduction of a consent-based definition in determining sexual violence and rape.

There is an ongoing political and institutional discussion on this issue.21

Stateless and forcibly displaced people in Estonia can access VSS services in the

same manner as Estonian citizens.

In 2023, a total of 7,012 violence cases were registered in Estonia, including 3,186

cases of domestic violence.22 Domestic violence crimes accounted for 45 per cent of

all registered violent crimes.23 In 2023, physical abuse accounted for 87 per cent of

______________________

17 Ministry of Justice of the Republic of Estonia, the 2021-2025 Violence Prevention Agreement, www.just.ee/kuritegevus-ja- selle-ennetus/vagivallaennetuse-kokkulepe. 18Ministry of Justice, On the conformity of the elements of offences against sexual self-determination with the Istanbul Convention of the Council of Europe Analysis, Analüüs seksuaalse enesemääramise vastaste süütegude koosseisude vastavusest EN Istanbuli konventsioonile.pdf. 19 Supra note 12 and 13. 20 Mõttekoda Praxis, Seksuaalvägivalla kohtueelne uurimine, www.praxis.ee/uploads/2024/03/Seksuaalvagivalla-kohtueelne- uurimine.pdf. 21 Feministeerium, Consent Act FAQ, 26 March 2024, https://feministeerium.ee/nousolekuseaduse-kkk/; Gortfelder B., Nõusolekuseadus tuleb: justiitisministeerium saatis väljatöötamiskavatsuse kooskõlastusringile, Delfi 18.12.2024, www.delfi.ee/artikkel/120344621/nousolekuseadus-tuleb-justiitsministeerium-saatis-valjatootamiskavatsuse-kooskolastusringile. 22 Justiitsministeerium, (2023), Kuritegevus Eestis 2023. Perevägivald ja ahistamine. In English: The Ministry of Justice, (2023), The Crime in Estonia 2023. Domestic violence and harassment, https://www.justdigi.ee/kuritegevus2023/perevagivald-ja- ahistamine/. 23 Ministry of Justice, Crime in Estonia 2023, https://www.justdigi.ee/kuritegevus2023/perevagivald-ja-ahistamine/.

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reported cases, followed by threats at 6 per cent, sexual crimes at 5 per cent, and

other violent crimes at 2 per cent. Since 2021, the share of physical abuse has

increased from 83 per cent to 87 per cent. Threatening decreased from 10 per cent in

2021 to 6 per cent in 2023. Sexual crimes stayed at the same level of 5 per cent and

other violent crimes at 2 per cent in all years (2021-2023).24 See Figure 1.

Source: Justiitsministeerium. (2023). Kuritegevus Eestis 2023. Perevägivald ja ahistamine.

Nevertheless, a large share of individuals who have experienced GBV,25 in Estonia,

do not reach out to the police, victim support, or healthcare systems. This

prevents them from receiving the necessary support for recovering from trauma.26 The

violence prevention agreement (in Estonian “Vägivallaennetuse kokkulepe”)

emphasizes the need for better case-based oversight and the availability of

gender-based data to ensure the protection of individuals who have experienced

GBV, and to assess both the adequacy of existing services and the need for additional

services.

Previous studies have mainly focused on the prevalence of GBV in Estonia,27 as well

as on understanding the awareness and attitudes of individuals who have experienced

GBV, domestic violence, human trafficking, labour exploitation, or involvement in

prostitution. These studies have also assessed the level of awareness regarding

VSS.28 Similarly, other studies have focused on examining access to justice of

______________________

24 Ibid. 25 64 per cent of women have faced violence at home, see more in: Vägivallateenuste kokkulepe 2021-2025, p.7. https://www.kriminaalpoliitika.ee/sites/krimipoliitika/files/elfinder/dokumendid/vagivallaennetuse_kokkulepe_2021-2025.pdf. 26 Ibid., p.15. 27 M. Puniste & T. Taal. (2022). ‘Care4 Trauma: Improving GBV Victims Support Services and Access to Justice through Trauma-Informed Care.’ State-of-the-Art Assessment. Country Report: Estonia. Women’s Support and Information Centre NPO. Retrieved from: https://naistetugi.ee/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/Care4Trauma_CountryReportEstonia_ENG.pdf. 28 Sotsiaalkindlustusamet (2024), Eesti elanikkonna teadlikkuse uuring soopõhise vägivalla ja inimkaubanduse valdkonnas, in English: The Social Insurance Board (2024), ‘Study on Public Awareness on Gender-Based Violence and Human Trafficking in Estonia,’ https://www.sotsiaalkindlustusamet.ee/sites/default/files/documents/2024- 04/Eesti%20elanikkonna%20teadlikkuse%20uuring%20soop%C3%B5hise%20v%C3%A4givalla%20ja%20inimkaubanduse%2 0valdkonnas.pdf.

83%

10% 5%

2%

87%

7% 4% 2%

87%

6% 5% 2%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Physical abuse Threatening Sexual crimes Other violent crimes

Figure 1. Distribution of violent crimes related to domestic violence by type of crime

2021 2022 2023

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individuals who have experienced GBV, as well as the barriers these individuals have

encountered,29 and how different organizations (e.g., police, health institutions, VSS,

and government organizations) cooperate to identify and assess the needs of those

individuals and refer to the appropriate services.30 Lastly, the scope of previous

research was to map the availability of online counselling and e-courses for individuals

who experienced GBV.31

In 2023, 30 individuals in Estonia experienced sexual exploitation with signs of

human trafficking. These individuals were from Ukraine (14), Venezuela (4), Brazil (4),

Colombia (2), Russia (2), Thailand (2), the Dominican Republic (1), and Kazakhstan

(1).32 A total of 289 potential survivors received counselling through the human

trafficking helpline.

Psychological violence has also been reported. Half of the calls to the victim support

crisis hotline33 were related to psychological violence that affected the mental health

of the survivors. As of 2023, a total of 6,723 calls were received. Seventy per cent of

the calls were made in Estonian, 23 per cent in Russian, and 5 per cent (348 calls) in

the Ukrainian language. Since the victim support crisis hotline provides information

only in three languages (Estonian, Russian, and English), individuals who do not

speak these languages face difficulties accessing the services adequately.

Additionally, online counselling services were provided to 1,317 individuals, who

primarily sought support for anxiety, depression, and relationship difficulties.34

The results of these studies have shown that most of the overall population in

Estonia (approximately 82 per cent) is familiar with at least one VSS. Nevertheless,

awareness appears to be lower among residents of other nationalities, with around 71

per cent of non-Estonian residents reporting familiarity with at least one

service.35

The services with the highest levels of recognition include the Women’s Support

Centres (approximately 61 per cent) and the Victim Support Crisis Hotline

(approximately 59 per cent). Awareness of other services is comparatively lower.

Around one third of the population (approximately 35 per cent) is aware of sexual

violence crisis centres, while a quarter of respondents are familiar with services such

as victim support workers (27 per cent), online mental health counselling (26 per cent),

______________________

29 M. Puniste & T. Taal (2022), The study analysed national, regional, and local legislation, policies, guidelines, and victim studies related to trauma-informed care. 30 M. Vollmer & A. Markina (2017), Developing Directive-Compatible Practices for the Identification, Assessment, and Referral of Victims. National Report: Estonia, https://www.ibs.ee/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/VICT-report-ESTONIA-3.pdf. 31 K. Abel jt (2023), Sotsiaalkindlustusameti Aastaraamat (2023), in English: K. Abel et al (2023), Social Insurance Board Yearbook (2023), https://www.sotsiaalkindlustusamet.ee/sites/default/files/documents/2024-04/SKA_aastaraamat_2023.pdf, p. 23. 32 Ibid., pp. 23-24. 33 The victim support crisis Hotline respond in three languages: Estonian, Russian and English. 34 Ibid., p. 23. 35 K. Abel jt. (2023), Sotsiaalkindlustusameti Aastaraamat (2023), in English: K. Abel et al (2023), Social Insurance Board Yearbook (2023), https://www.sotsiaalkindlustusamet.ee/sites/default/files/documents/2024-04/SKA_aastaraamat_2023.pdf p.23.

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and emotional support and spiritual care hotlines (25 per cent). Approximately 19 per

cent of the population is aware of mental health services focused on trauma recovery.

Only few individuals (around 10 per cent) are familiar with psychosocial support

services, victim support for human trafficking survivors, and services supporting the

cessation of violence. The restorative justice service36 is known to only 6 per cent of

the population. See Figure 2.

Source: K. Abel, et.al. (2023). Sotsiaalkindlustusameti Aastaraamat (2023)

Furthermore, as presented in Figure 3, more than half of the population (58 per cent)

believe there are challenges in ensuring the human rights of individuals who have

suffered domestic violence. While more than half (over 50 per cent) view domestic

violence as a serious issue and a violation of human rights, approximately one in

three Estonians (41 per cent of men and 19 per cent of women) feel that the issue

is exaggerated and that such incidents do not occur within their social circles or local

communities. A significant portion of the population (68 per cent) expresses support

______________________

36 ‘Restorative justice’ means any process whereby the victim and the perpetrator are enabled, if they freely consent, to participate actively in the resolution of matters arising from the criminal offence through the help of an impartial third party. Directive 2012/29/EU OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 25 October 2012 establishing minimum standards on the rights, support and protection of victims of crime, and replacing Council Framework Decision 2001/220/JHA art 2.1.d https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX%3A32012L0029.

61%

59%

35%

27%

26%

25%

19%

10%

10%

10%

6%

Women's Support Centre

Victim Support Crisis Hotline

Sexual Violence Crisis Centres

Victim Support Workers

Online Mental Health Councelling

Emotional Support and Spiritual Care Hotlines

Mental Health Services (Trauma Recovery)

Psychosocial Support Services

Victim Support for Survivors of Human Trafficking

Services Supporting Cessation of Violence

Restorative Justice Service

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70%

Figure 2. Estonian population awareness of the provided victim support services

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for the implementation of a specific domestic violence law, which they believe would

enhance the effectiveness of addressing domestic violence in Estonia.37

Source: I. Pettai (2022). Domestic and Gender-Based Violence in Estonia.

In 2024, the Socio-Economic Insights Survey (SEIS) was conducted by UNHCR in

Estonia.38 According to the survey, respondents are most familiar with safety and

security services, such as the police and safe shelters (70 per cent), and health

services (66 per cent) as the primary ways to access GBV support. Fewer respondents

would recommend psychosocial services (41 per cent), dedicated helplines (37 per

cent), or legal assistance (30 per cent) to someone from their community who has

experienced GBV. Additionally, men are more likely than women to lack awareness of

available GBV services (40 per cent vs. 28 per cent).39

Lastly, the previous studies have shown that referral mechanism is effective only

between the PBGB as well as SIB and VSS. Health institutions provide services to

individuals who have experienced GBV, but they are not part of the support network,

resulting in a lack of a holistic approach.40 The PBGB does not have guidelines for

assessing the needs of individuals who have experienced GBV. The needs of those

people are self-assessed and primarily based on participants' personal knowledge and

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37 I. Pettai (2022), Domestic and Gender-Based Violence in Estonia. National Survey Results. Estonian Open Society Institute. Retrieved from: https://media.voog.com/0000/0035/2397/files/Pere- %20ja%20naistevastane%20v%C3%A4givald%20Eestis%20%20%202020%20aasta%20uuringu%20%20tulemused.pdf. 38 UNHCR, 2024 Estonia Socio-Economic Insights Survey, https://microdata.unhcr.org/index.php/catalog/1222/. 39 Ibid., p. 17. In that survey. 40 Supra note 23, M. Vollmer & A. Markina (2017).

68%

58%

41%

19%

Both men and women support implementation of a specific domestic violence law to enhance the

effectiveness of addressing domestic violence in Estonia

Both men and women view domestic violence as a violation of human rights

Men think that issue is exaggerated and that such incidents do not occur within their social circles or

local communities

Women think that issue is exaggerated and that such incidents do not occur within their social

circles or local communities

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80%

Figure 3. Views on incidents of domestic violence among men and women in Estonia

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subjective judgment. A formal identification process is only applied to determine if an

individual who has experienced GBV, belongs to a specific group, such as individuals

used for human trafficking of children who have been sexually abused.41

In December 2023, new agreements came into effect with women’s support centres

established in all counties of Estonia. These centres offer counselling and secure

temporary accommodation to women who have experienced violence. Women

Support Centres are central service providers at the local level.

In 2023, nearly 2,000 women sought assistance from Women’s Support Centres, with

secure accommodation provided to 160 women and 173 children. Additionally,

trauma-focused mental health support was offered through 67 partner organizations,

ensuring comprehensive care for those in need. Survivors of sexual violence can seek

help from sexual violence crisis centres located in Tallinn, Pärnu, Tartu, and Kohtla-

Järve. During the same year, three support groups for survivors of sexual violence

were active, holding a total of 170 sessions with 36 participants. Crisis centres

provided assistance to 209 individuals, including nine men, offering essential support

to those in need.

In 2023, the Human Trafficking Helpline received 431 calls. Assistance was provided

to 289 potential survivors and 142 officials, including employees of the PBGB, the

Labour Inspectorate, and local governments involved in trafficking prevention.

Additionally, 113 in-person consultations were conducted. Among the potential

survivors, 89 per cent were citizens of 20 different countries.42

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41 Ibid. These individuals are entitled to additional support and state-funded services. 42 K. Abel jt. (2023), Sotsiaalkindlustusameti Aastaraamat (2023). In English: K. Abel et al. (2023), Social Insurance Board Yearbook (2023), p.24. Retrieved from: https://www.sotsiaalkindlustusamet.ee/sites/default/files/documents/2024- 04/SKA_aastaraamat_2023.pdf.

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3. Methodology of the study

This report uses an exploratory case study as its main research approach to examine

the effectiveness of referral pathways for individuals who have experienced GBV when

accessing VSS in Estonia. The study employs four main methods:

1. exploratory desk research;

2. legal and policy analysis;

3. interviews and consultations with relevant stakeholders;

4. individual interviews with forcibly displaced and stateless persons, including

GBV survivors.

The combination of these methods ensures comprehensive data collection, and

triangulation has been applied to enhance understanding of the research topic.

3.1 Phases of the Research and Research Questions

This research is conducted in three phases.

The first phase of the study involved a literature review and analysis of relevant

sources, including existing legal and policy documents. The systematic literature

review provided an overview of previous studies on the effectiveness of state-funded

VSS and levels of satisfaction with their quality. It also included an analysis of

published quantitative data regarding individuals who have experienced GBV, the

services accessible to them, and referral pathways to other institutions in Estonia.

Reviewing and analysing the available literature helps objectively evaluate existing

knowledge and supports the generalization of research findings.43 It also allows for the

examination of international good practices. An analysis of the existing legal

framework helps identify gaps in legislation that require attention.

Literature and document analysis

Desk research was carried out by reviewing relevant policy documents, published

reports, scholarly analyses, and academic literature. The literature review included

searches of academic databases in English such as Google Scholar, HeinOnline,

Juridica, Scopus, and Web of Science, along with specialized databases for guidelines

and case studies like EUR-Lex, Riigikohus, and Riigi Teataja. The desk research

utilized specific search terms derived from related publications, including academic

literature, policy documents, and industry reports concerning the assessment,

development, and implementation of protective and preventive measures for GBV

within Estonian and European social insurance systems. The results were selected

based on the following criteria: (i) relevance to the study's objectives, (ii) recency, and

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43 H. Snyder. (2019). Literature Review as a Research Methodology: An Overview and Guidelines. Journal of Business Research, 104: 333-339. Doi: 10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.07.039; A. Delios, jt. (2022). Examining the Generalizability of Research Findings from Archival Data. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 119(30): e2120377119. Doi: 10.1073/pnas.2120377119.

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(iii) source reliability. Findings from the desk research were further verified through

stakeholder consultations and online face-to-face interviews with individuals holding

temporary residence status in Estonia, including those who have experienced GBV.

The study identifies available VSS for refugees and asylum-seekers who have

experienced GBV, covering health, mental health and psychological support, safety

and security, and justice services.

Legal and policy analysis

To achieve the aims of the research, an overview of the existing legislation regulating

prevention of and response to GBV in Estonia, is provided. The legal and policy

analysis involved assessing the rules within the social insurance system, as well as

protective measures aimed at forcibly displaced and stateless individuals who have

experienced GBV. It also examined the availability and accessibility of VSS, including

social and healthcare services, and explored measures designed to prevent

victimization, fraud, stigma, and discrimination. The analysis of legislative acts,

regulations, and case studies used methods of legal interpretation to clarify the

purpose behind government rules and policies. Additionally, the analysis identified

legal and practical barriers faced by refugees and asylum-seekers who have

experienced GBV.

The second phase of this study includes interviews and discussions with

stakeholders from various institutions working with individuals who have experienced

GBV (See Annex II), and with the forcibly displaced people (temporary protection

holders) who live in Estonia.

The interviews were conducted to better understand the needs of forcibly displaced

people who have experienced GBV (e.g., what is their satisfaction with the services

and referral pathway to access services) as well as the needs of service providers and

those who refer to services. The interviews provided essential insights for evaluating

the effectiveness of existing services. Qualitative analysis of the interview data offered

an in-depth understanding of the research topic, as interviewees were able to respond

freely and express themselves in their own words.44 Interview data were transcribed

and systematically analysed according to key thematic areas.

The interviews helped identify the accessibility of relevant support services and

existing referral pathways for directing individuals who have experienced GBV towards

appropriate care. They also clarified the roles of various institutions and actors

involved, including social support services, healthcare providers, law enforcement

agencies, and NGOs.

Interviews and consultations with service providers and stakeholders

Interviews with service providers and stakeholders (see Annex 1) from municipalities,

______________________

44 I. Bertrand ja P. Hughes (2017), Media Research Methods: Audiences, Institutions, Texts. Springer.

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state agencies NGOs, medical facilities, centres for refugees and asylum-seekers,

women's shelters, and international organizations were conducted online between 14

and 22 November 2024. Discussions with stakeholders (n=15), each lasting

approximately 60 to 90 minutes, provided insights into referral patterns and helped

identify gaps in support pathways for refugees, forcibly displaced individuals, and

stateless persons who have experienced GBV in Estonia.

Individual interviews with forcibly displaced and stateless individuals, experienced

GBV including SEA

Individual interviews with forcibly displaced persons (n=5), all of whom held temporary

protection status, were planned to be conducted online between 2 and 17 January

2025. The purpose of these interviews was to assess their awareness and

experiences regarding services available to GBV survivors in Estonia. The personal

interviews provided insights into how referral pathways were structured and perceived

by individuals who had experienced GBV, as well as the accessibility and quality of

VSS. The quality of VSS was assessed using the Client Satisfaction Questionnaire

(CSQ-8) developed by Larsen et al. (1979). Additionally, the efficiency, effectiveness,

and impact of VSS on GBV survivors, along with the effectiveness of referral pathways

to relevant institutions, were evaluated according to OECD evaluation criteria.45

In the third phase, the effectiveness of identified referral pathways was assessed by

examining the strength of cooperation among institutions, service accessibility, and

timeliness of care delivery. Based on this assessment, recommendations for legal and

policy actions were developed to address identified gaps and enhance referral

pathways for forcibly displaced and stateless individuals who have experienced GBV.

To better understand obstacles and opportunities related to accessing services, the

coordination and roles of different institutions were described by answering the

following questions:

Legal and Regulatory Framework

● Does Estonian legislation regulate the prevention and response to violence,

including GBV and SEA?

● What changes in domestic legislation or social welfare organizations are

needed to ensure equal access to VSS for forcibly displaced people?

Available Services and Referral Mechanisms

● What VSS are available (in Estonia) for forcibly displaced and stateless persons

who experienced GBV?

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45 OECD, (2021) Applying Evaluation Criteria Thoughtfully, OECD Publishing, Paris. Doi: 10.1787/543e84ed-en, https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/applying-evaluation-criteria-thoughtfully_543e84ed-en.html.

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● What referral mechanisms exist and have been implemented to guide

individuals who have experienced GBV to these services (i.e., VSS), and are

they comprehensive, effective, timely, and accessible?

● How are individuals who have experienced GBV informed about relevant social

support services, and what are the primary sources of information for forcibly

displaced people?

Access and Obstacles

● What legal, practical, as well as organizational and administrative barriers do

individuals who have experienced GBV, face in accessing VSS in a timely and

adequate manner?

Institutional Roles and Coordination

● What roles do various institutions and actors (e.g., social support services,

healthcare, law enforcement, NGOs) play in providing support for individuals

who have experienced GBV?

● How is the coordination between these institutions organized to ensure that

individuals who have experienced GBV receive comprehensive and effective

support?

Survivor Satisfaction and Service Quality

● Are forcibly displaced people, who have experienced GBV, satisfied with the

accessibility and quality of the services provided?

● If not, what were the primary reasons for limited or inadequate support?

Recommendations for improvement

● What improvements are needed in the current situation (e.g., in legislation,

organization of the social welfare, or the development of person-centred

services) to provide refugees and asylum-seekers with equal opportunities for

assistance to access VSS?

Limitations of the current study

This study has several limitations that should be considered when interpreting its

findings. First, the research focused exclusively on adult forcibly displaced and

stateless individuals and did not include the perspectives of children or other

persons with specific needs. Second, the qualitative interview sample was

relatively small and consisted only of Ukrainian refugees holding temporary

protection status, which may limit the broader applicability of the findings to other

groups.

The study’s primary focus was on GBV, but forms such as psychological, emotional,

and economic violence, as well as less severe forms of domestic violence, were only

addressed to a limited extent. This reflects both the specific focus of the study and the

limited availability of relevant research and data in the Estonian context. Additionally,

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while the study explored referral pathways and access to services, less attention was

paid to the specific legal procedures available to asylum-seekers in GBV-related

cases, such as how and when legal aid can be accessed in family-related situations.

These limitations highlight the need for further research on the experiences of

other groups within the forcibly displaced population, especially asylum-seekers, and

on the full spectrum of GBV-related cases and support mechanisms.

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4. Legal and policy measures for the protection

of survivors of GBV and SEA in Estonia

4.1 An overview of existing legislation

This chapter provides an overview of the main legal acts that regulate the responses

to violence in Estonia.

There is an EU wide obligation of Member States to support survivors. According to

the Victims’ Directive,46 Member States must ensure that referrals take place at the

survivor’s first point of contact, typically through the police or victim support

organizations. Timely and efficient referral of survivors to appropriate support services

is essential. In Estonia, the police generally serve as the initial contact point. Referral

mechanisms connect the police with VSS, and generic VSS then guide survivors to

additional, specialized support providers.

Article 12 of the Constitution of Estonia47 states that everyone is equal under the law.

No one should be discriminated against based on ethnicity, race, colour, sex,

language, origin, religion, political or other views, property, social status or other

grounds.

Estonia has ratified Istanbul Convention48 and the new Victim Support Act49 entered

into force on 1 April 2023. Furthermore, Estonia is bound by the EU Directive

2024/1385 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 May 2024 on

Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence.50

Moreover, the Penal Code §§ 141, 1411, and 143 regulate criminal offences.51

According to §141 of the Penal Code, rape is defined as sexual intercourse with a

person against their will, either by using force or by exploiting a situation in which the

person is unable to resist or comprehend the situation. This offense is punishable by

imprisonment from one to six years.52 According to §143 of the Penal Code, sexual

intercourse or any other sexual act performed against a person's will by exploiting the

survivor’s dependency on the perpetrator - but without using force or taking advantage

of a situation where the survivor is unable to resist or understand the situation as

specified in §1411- is punishable by up to three years' imprisonment.

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46 Directive 2024/1385 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 May 2024 on Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence. 47 Eesti Vabariigi põhiseadus, RT I, 15.05.2015, 2, https://www.riigiteataja.ee/akt/115052015002. 48 Naistevastase vägivalla ja perevägivalla ennetamise ja tõkestamise Euroopa Nõukogu konventsiooni ratifitseerimise seadus, RT II, 26.09.2017, https://www.riigiteataja.ee/akt/226092017001. 49 Victim Support Act1, RT I, 06.01.2023, 1, Adopted 14.12.2022. 50 OJ L, 24.5.2024. 51 RT I, 04.07.2024, 25. 52 §1411 of Penal Code.

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4.2 Legal definition of a victim

Estonian legislation includes two definitions of the term ‘victim’. The Victim Support

Act of 2023 replaced previous legislation that had been in effect for nearly two

decades. It introduced several new services, clearer guidelines for communication,

updated requirements for victim support providers, established principles for the

treatment of victims, and simplified the application process for crime victim

compensation.53 Victim Support Act defines a victim as “a person who is harmed or

dies as a result of a crime, violence or event of crisis”.54

The act specifies eligibility criteria for victim support and provides a somewhat broad

definition of the term 'victim'. Nevertheless, this definition aligns with the primary

objective of the Directive, emphasizing that victims should have access to support

services regardless of the severity of the crime or whether they have reported it.

A victim of trafficking in human beings is defined as "a person who has been identified

as a victim in criminal proceedings initiated based on the elements of a crime outlined

in § 133–1333, 138–140 or 175 of the Penal Code or a person who would be

considered a victim in criminal proceedings initiated based on elements of a similar

crime defined in the penal code of another country”.55

The Victim Support Act also defines a victim of violence against women as “a woman

who has suffered physical, sexual, psychological, or economic harm or distress in

public or private life as a result of domestic violence, GBV, or threats thereof, including

coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty”.56

According to the Victims Support Act, “a victim of domestic violence is a person who

has experienced acts of physical, sexual, psychological or economic violence in a

family or cohabitation or by a former or current spouse or partner, regardless of

whether the perpetrator of the act of violence lives or has lived in the same place of

residence as the victim”.57 A victim of sexual violence is defined as "a person subjected

to sexual acts without their consent, forced to engage in sexual acts with a third party,

or otherwise sexually abused”.58 According to § 4 (1) of the Victim Support Act, victim

support refers to a system comprising state-organized VSS and compensation

provided to victims of crime.

______________________

53 SKA Aastaraamat 2023, p 24. 54 §4 (2) Victims Support Act. 55 §4 (3) VSA. 56 §4 (4) VSA. 57 §4 (5) VSA. 58 §4 (6) VSA.

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4.3 Victims in criminal procedures

In Estonia, criminal proceedings involve courts, prosecutors' offices, and investigative

bodies like the PBGB and Internal Security Service. Under §193 of the Code of

Criminal Procedure, the Prosecutor's Office may initiate proceedings if there is reason

and evidence of a criminal offense. If initiated by the police, the Prosecutor’s Office

must be informed immediately. Proceedings begin based on a report or information

indicating a criminal offence and are justified by identifying criminal elements.

Pre-trial investigations are conducted by the PBGB or the Internal Security Service,

directed by the Prosecutor's Office to ensure legality and efficiency. After the

investigation, the prosecutor either files a bill of indictment in court or terminates the

case, with conciliation proceedings as a possible outcome. The trial phase involves

the victim, suspect or accused, their counsel, civil defendant, and third parties.59 The

parties to a court proceeding have all the rights of participants in the proceedings

provided for in the Code of Criminal Procedure (Kriminaalmenetluse seadustik, §17

(2)). Under the Code of Criminal Procedure, all provisions for witnesses also apply to

victims. A person becomes a victim in proceedings either through procedural acts or

by a ruling of the court. Victims can be involved at any stage of the process and in all

court instances until the conclusion of appeal proceedings.

Article 195 of the Code of Criminal Procedure ensures victims' rights when reporting

a crime. Complaints can be submitted orally or in writing to an investigative body or

prosecutor’s office. Oral reports made onsite are recorded, with a copy provided to the

complainant. Reports via phone are either written down or audio recorded. If the

complainant is the victim, authorities must confirm receipt within 20 days.

If proceedings are not initiated, the reporting individual must be notified within 10 days.

These provisions align with Article 5 of the Directive, ensuring victims can report

crimes through various means and receive written confirmation or acknowledgment.60

4.4 Right to linguistic assistance, interpretation and translation

The Code of Criminal Procedure also guarantees the victim's right to get linguistic

assistance. The official language of criminal proceedings in Estonia is Estonian.

However, the Code of Criminal Procedure allows to conduct proceedings in another

language if the body conducting criminal proceedings, participants in the proceeding

and parties to the court proceeding consent to it and if the body, participants and

parties are proficient in such language. If doubts arise regarding a victim’s proficiency

in Estonian, the authority conducting the proceedings will determine their language

proficiency. If the victim does not speak Estonian sufficiently, an interpreter or

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59 Code of Criminal Procedure §17 (1), RT I 2003, 27, 166. 60 Art 5, Directive 2024/1385 OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 14 May 2024 on combating violence against women and domestic violence.

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translator will be provided. According to the Code of Criminal Procedure, victims have

the right to request translations of essential documents - such as decisions on the

termination of cases or court judgments - into their native language or another

language they understand, within ten days. Victims may also request translations of

other documents crucial to protecting their procedural rights. If the authority

responsible for the proceedings determines that translating such additional documents

is not justified, it must issue a formal ruling on the refusal.61 Additionally, individuals

who access VSS are entitled to free translation services for up to two years.

4.5 Assessment of individual protection needs

The Code of Criminal Procedure requires authorities conducting proceedings to

evaluate whether a victim needs special treatment and protection. This assessment

considers factors such as the victim's individual characteristics, the severity and nature

of the offense, the profile of the suspect, the circumstances of the crime, and the harm

caused. Minors are presumed to require special protection. Based on the outcome of

this assessment, specific measures are determined to ensure the victim’s safety, such

as providing adapted premises, involving specialists trained in victim care, or

maintaining consistent personnel throughout the proceedings.

The explanatory note accompanying the draft law transposing the Victims' Directive

emphasizes that while no formal procedure for assessing victims' needs currently

exists, authorities like the police or prosecutor's office are still responsible for

evaluating each victim’s needs to guarantee appropriate support. Additionally, the

explanatory note stresses that further training and clear guidelines are necessary to

adequately address victims’ specific needs within criminal procedures.62

The explanatory note also recognizes that the concept of assessment is needed to be

created. Among others, police officers, prosecutors and judges shall consider,

whether:

● The victim is a minor;

● The offence is a high-risk crime such as sexual offence, serious violent crime,

domestic violence, human trafficking, organized crime, hate crime;

● The personality or situation of a person involves high-risk factors such as

threats to the victim, high age, mental/physical special needs, language, ability

to express his or her will;

● In case of domestic violence to assess whether medical assistance is needed

because of injuries, whether act of violence is repeated, whether there are

children in the family, whether the victim is pregnant;

● Whether a firearm was used or there is access to firearms;

● Whether the victim has suicidal thoughts;

● Whether the perpetrator was previously violent;

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61 Code of Criminal Procedure §10, RT I 2003, 27, 166. 62 Ohvriabi seaduse eelnõu seletuskiri.

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● Whether there was a violation of a restraining order;

● Whether the victim or a perpetrator has an addiction risk.63

4.6 Right to be informed

According to §6 of the Victim Support Act, information about available VSS must be

accessible through the SIB, local authorities, police, rescue services, healthcare

institutions, social welfare services, educational institutions, youth work agencies,

prosecutor’s offices, courts, and other relevant agencies, including on their websites.

Additionally, officials involved in criminal proceedings are obligated to forward the

victim’s information promptly to SIB to facilitate timely access to support services.64 At

the webpage of SIB the information about the support to victims is available in

Estonian, Russian, and English only.

The Code of Criminal Procedure ensures the victim's rights to be informed about the

custody of a suspect and to request notification of their release if there is potential

danger.65 The victim may also choose one person to accompany them during any

procedural acts unless the authority conducting the proceedings has a justified reason

to refuse this request.

4.7 Rights to legal representation

A victim, civil defendant, or third party who is a natural person may participate in

criminal proceedings either personally or through a representative. Choosing to

participate personally does not affect their right to be represented by someone else.

Victims are entitled to state legal aid in criminal proceedings under the conditions

and procedures specified in the State Legal Aid Act. If a court determines that the

victim's essential interests might not be adequately protected without legal

representation, the court may, on its own initiative, grant state legal aid in accordance

with §41 of the State Legal Aid Act.66

4.8 Right to access victim support services

Victim support services (VSS) are provided on the principle of regionality and shall

be available in every county of Estonia.67 The law states that information

concerning the possibilities of using the VSS shall be available at local government,

police, rescue centre, health care, social welfare and other relevant authorities and

their websites. Victim Support Act 68 §15 regulates the purpose and content of VSS.

The purpose of VSS is to ensure social, psychological, and emotional support

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63 Ministry of Justice (Justiitsministeerium), ‘Seletuskiri kriminaalmenetluse seadustiku muutmise ja sellega seonduvalt teiste seaduste muutmise seaduse eelnõu, millega laiendatakse kannatanute õigusi kriminaalmenetluses, juurde’. 64 §7 of the Victims Support Act . 65 §133 Code of Criminal Procedure. 66 State Legal Aid Act - https://www.riigiteataja.ee/en/eli/525082015004/consolide. 67 https://sotsiaalkindlustusamet.ee/ohvriabi#kontakt, (The webpage with specific contact names is available only in Estonian), 06.01.2024. 68 RT I, 06.01.2023, 1.

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(hereinafter psychosocial support) to persons who have been harmed due to a crime,

violence or event of crisis to contribute to the preservation or restoration of their sense

of security and ability to cope and to prevention of further damage.

According to Victim Support act §15 (2) VSS are:

● basic VSS;

● psychosocial support in the event of crisis;

● women's support centre service (primary psychological crisis support,

counselling, legal advice, safe temporary accommodation);

● sexual violence crisis support;

● service for victims in human trafficking;

● restorative justice services;

● support for abandonment of violence;

● mental health assistance in support of recovery from trauma;

● assistance in communicating with state and local authorities and relevant

natural and legal persons.69

The Code of Criminal Procedure (§8) requires investigative bodies and courts to

inform victims of their right to contact victim support officials, access support

services, and receive state compensation for violent crime victims. They must also

explain safety measures available under the Code. If the victim does not speak

Estonian, translation must be provided.

Under §15(3), SIB may delegate the provision of certain VSS, fully or partially, to

individuals, organizations, or local authorities through administrative contracts.70 Local

government social workers can also serve as the initial contact point for accessing

support services, depending on where an individual first seeks assistance.

The Victim Support Act (§16) outlines specific provisions for victims of human

trafficking and terrorist offenses committed in Estonia. These victims are entitled to

support services regardless of their legal residency status, until their departure date or

their obligation to leave Estonia. GBV victims lose access to services once they leave

Estonia.71

Furthermore, Equal Treatment Act72 safeguards individuals from discrimination based

on nationality (ethnicity), race, colour, religion or belief, age, disability, or sexual

orientation. According to the Act, discrimination on the grounds of nationality (ethnic

origin), race, or colour is strictly prohibited. Therefore, all services provided to local

citizens should be also provided to refugees and other legally staying persons

including those who have faced GBV.

______________________

69 Victim Support Act §17 (2). 70 See more here: https://sotsiaalkindlustusamet.ee/en/child-and-adult-need-help/support-victims/womens-support-centres. 71 Victim Support Act §17 (3). 72 Equal Treatment Act1, RT I, 22.10.2021, 11.

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5. Overview of existing referral pathways and

service providers Estonia does not have a specific legal definition for referral pathways. According to the

Health Board (Tervisekassa), the comprehensive nationwide referral management

system provides an event-based overview of a patient’s treatment journey, covering

various referrals, responses, and care responsibilities. This system ensures continuity

of care, supports clinical processes, saves specialists' time, and improves both patient

experience and the overall quality of healthcare services.73 In this study, the term

"referral pathways" refers to the processes through which survivors of violence

are guided to relevant support services. The schematic description of the existing

referral pathways in Estonia is presented in the Executive summary of the current

report.

5.1 Available support services provided by the service providers

Estonia’s victim support system includes VSS and compensation for crime victims.

National VSS are provided by staff members of the SIB - including victim support

workers, counsellors, coordinators, and specialist - in collaboration with approximately

90 contractual partners such as NGOs, hospitals, psychological service providers, and

around 200 volunteers.

SIB operates a central office responsible for coordinating and delivering victim support

across Estonia. Victim support officers from the SIB are stationed at police stations,

where they offer emotional support, provide guidance and information, and facilitate

communication with other relevant institutions and NGOs. The primary aim of the SIB’s

VSS is to assist individuals affected by crime, violence, or crisis situations, helping

them maintain or restore their coping abilities and sense of security, while also working

to prevent future occurrences of violence.74

Services for victims of GBV are available to any resident of Estonia including

forcibly displaced and stateless people. The VSS is free of charge public service aimed

to maintain, enhance the ability of a victim to cope with the situation.

There are 15 counties in Estonia and each county has at least one official who

specializes in victim support. Victims support office is usually in the same building

as the police.

Asylum-seekers living in an Accommodation Centre for Asylum-Seekers (Vao Centre

and Vägeva Centre) are assisted by the social workers and managers of the centre.

______________________

73 https://www.tervisekassa.ee/en/organization/e-health-products/national-referral-system, accessed 16.01.2025, see also https://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/country-study-victim-support-services-ee.pdf 16.01.2025 74 The Social Insurance Board provides 24/7 crisis counseling in Estonian, Russian, and English via the Victim Support Crisis Hotline (116 006) and the chat feature on the website www.palunabi.ee.

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According to the information gained from SIB and Accommodation Centre for Asylum-

Seekers, all asylum-seekers get access to all relevant services, including medical

help, social counselling and psychological counselling in case of need.

The same services that are provided to Estonian citizens are provided also to refugees

by the local authorities. When the individual, who is a survivor of GBV turns to the

social worker at the local authority, they are offered to be referred to the VSS, with

their consent. Besides the service provided by the public authorities, there are several

NGOs which are also offering GBV VSS.

Service agreements are in place with women’s support centres, sexual violence crisis

centres, organizers of support groups, providers of counselling services for those

involved in sex trade, and providers of mental health support for trauma recovery. Daily

collaboration with NGOs and the private sector ensures comprehensive support for

survivors of violence. Survivors can receive support services via the Victim

Support Crisis Hotline at 116 006 or the Emotional Support and Pastoral Care

Hotline at 116 123.

Support is also available for those who have experienced particularly severe events.

High-risk domestic violence victims - those whose lives are in danger - receive

support through the MARAC network model (Multi-Agency Risk Assessment

Conference).75 MARAC network includes professionals from such as victim support,

police, prosecution, local government and child protection, women's support centre,

specialist supporting perpetrators in giving up violence, MARAC volunteer, and, when

justified, other institutions.

The MARAC model involves assessing victims' needs, creating personalized safety

plans, and holding regular case-management meetings. Once the intervention has

successfully ensured the victim's safety and protection, active intervention concludes,

and a one-year monitoring period begins. Each member of the MARAC network has

clearly defined roles and responsibilities. The main goal of the model is to prevent

homicides, suicides, serious harm, and the transmission of trauma across generations

resulting from intimate partner violence.

The MARAC model emphasizes that high-risk cases require coordinated responses

across multiple agencies, involving shared information and integrated services. Since

2024, MARAC core teams have been active in every Estonian county, including

representatives from VSS, police, municipalities, women’s support centres,

prosecutor’s offices, child protection agencies, and medical institutions. Public

perception views MARAC as an effective and timely intervention, and media reports

frequently highlight its significance.

______________________

75 Social Insurance Board, Helping an Adult Victim of Domestic Violence in Distress (MARAC Model), https://sotsiaalkindlustusamet.ee/MARAC.

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Overall, survivors of GBV can access the following assistance and services:

1. Healthcare and medical assistance integrated with police services. Victims

can call 112 for urgent medical help, visit emergency reception, and report

offenses to the police.

2. Victim support centres (incl. Women support centres) provide medical and

legal assistance, initial counselling on claiming damages, psychosocial crisis

care, family therapy, and referrals to professional psychotherapists. They also

assist in communication with state and local authorities.

3. Sexual violence crisis centres in major hospitals offer support, medical

examinations, psychological referrals, preventive treatment against HIV and

hepatitis B, and police contact if needed.

4. Women’s help centres and sexual violence centres offer 24/7 assistance,

shelter, and support services.

5. Accommodation centres (Vao and Vägeva) provide primary healthcare

access for asylum-seekers and international protection holders.

6. Social Insurance Board helpline (116 006) offers free, 24/7 anonymous

assistance in Estonian, English, and Russian for GBV victims. Other languages

are not supported.

7. Women’s helpline (1492) provides 24/7 counselling for women experiencing

physical, psychological, economic, or sexual abuse.

8. Children’s helpline (116 111) offers counselling, legal, medical, and

psychological support for children in Estonian, English, and Russian. Other

languages are not supported.

9. Online support is available via www.palunabi.ee, [email protected], and

www.lasteabi.ee in Estonian, English, and Russian. Other languages are not

supported. They provide legal, medical, and psychosocial assistance.

In June 2018, the Estonian police launched public campaign "Aga mina julgen

sekkuda" ("But I Dare to Intervene") to encourage reporting of intimate partner violence

and highlight it as a societal issue. Despite efforts, many cases remain unreported. In

2017, 2,632 domestic violence crimes were registered, with 40 per cent of survivors

experiencing repeat violence within five years. The campaign was part of the broader

"Aga mina" ("But Me") initiative to promote a safer society.76 In early 2018, the

Estonian police launched a campaign highlighting stalking as a crime, punishable by

a fine or up to one year in prison. Criminalized in 2017, stalking includes repeated

unwanted contact, following, or interference causing fear or distress. It affects both

adults and youth, often through online bullying.77

______________________

76 PBGB, Domestic violence prevention campaign, www.politsei.ee/et/juhend/ennetusprojektid. 77 PBGB, Harassing stalking campaign, www.politsei.ee/et/juhend/ennetusprojektid/ahistava-jalitamise-kampaania.

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To gain a deeper understanding and evaluate the existing referral pathways, 15

interviews were conducted with stakeholders and service providers. The role of each

institution is provided below.

The Police and Border Guard Board (PBGB) is often the first point of contact for

GBV or SEA survivors, it is also a part of the MARAC system. Police are required to

inform survivors about support services. With the survivor’s consent, their contact

details are shared with a victim support worker, and joint home visits may be

conducted with police and support workers. Survivors receive an informational booklet

with contact details for key support institutions, including police, shelters, victim

support, and welfare services. The booklet also outlines survivors’ rights and includes

space for personalized contact information provided by the police. It is available in

Estonian, Russian, and English. Other languages are not available, which can be a

limitation for the forcibly displaced people to access the services.78

The Social Insurance Board (SIB), operating under the Ministry of Internal Affairs,

provides VSS. When a survivor of GBV seeks assistance, SIB assesses their needs

and refers them to appropriate services, including the police, psychologists, women's

shelters, social workers, or hospitals. The closest collaboration is with the police,

where case management networks are created to address incidents. While

communication with psychologists and the prosecutor’s office occurs, it is primarily

oral to maintain confidentiality. However, cooperation with medical institutions is

limited, as they often do not provide feedback, even in cases where survivors are

referred directly to clinics.79 SIB is a part of the MARAC system. Its aim is to assist a

grown-up survivor of family violence in need and to provide rapid and effective support.

Tallinn Migration Centre (Tallinna Rändekeskus) provides counselling services to

refugees and migrants, regularly assisting individuals - predominantly women - who

have experienced GBV. Consultants at the centre offer immediate psychological

support and advise clients on available VSS.

The Women Support and Information Centre (MTÜ Naiste Tugi-ja Teabekeskus)

provides safe accommodation for women who have experienced violence or threats

of violence. Its services include temporary housing, psychological counselling, crisis

support, assistance with contacting authorities, legal counselling (e.g., regarding court

proceedings, divorce, or child protection issues), and help in rebuilding their lives.

Women can select services according to their individual circumstances, with

consultations tailored to their specific needs.

______________________

78 PBGB, Prevention Materials, www.politsei.ee/et/juhend/ennetusalased-materjalid. 79 Interview with SIB, 20.12.2024.

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There are several women shelters80 in Estonia though they do not have individual

websites. Information about these accommodation centres, available services, and

contact numbers can be accessed online via naisteabi.ee. These shelters receive

women 24 hours a day and provide immediate assistance: accommodation,

psychological crisis help, assistance in contacting authorities.

However, a noted concern is that some women’s shelters do not accommodate

women with a migration background, as highlighted in an interview with one of the

NGOs. The noted reasons to this were the low capacity and scarce resources of some

shelters to provide assistance to survivors of GBV.81

The Accommodation Centres for Asylum-Seekers (Vao and Vägeva Centres)

provide housing and support services for individuals applying for international

protection and assist recipients of protection in settling within local communities.

These centres offer various forms of support throughout the international protection

process, including referrals to medical care, psychological support, referral to the legal

aid, translation services, and police assistance when necessary. In cases of GBV,

survivors are referred to the police.

Estonian Refugee Council (ERC) provides support services to beneficiaries of

international protection in Estonia. As one of the main competence centres on forced

migration and integration in Estonia, ERC also plays a role in the referral mechanism

by directing individuals to the services they need.

Estonian Human Rights Centre (EHRC) is an independent NGO founded in

December 2009, advocates for human rights in Estonia and provides free legal advice

to refugees and migrants in Estonia. If EHRC works with a person, who is a survivor

of GBV, they refer them to the VSS of SIB.

The International Organization for Migration (IOM) has operated in Estonia for 20

years, focusing on counter-trafficking, integration, voluntary return, and public

awareness. It developed a national cultural orientation programme and trains officials

and NGOs. IOM case managers support vulnerable individuals through health

referrals, temporary accommodation, and psychosocial support training for first

responders. In GBV cases, individuals are referred to Victim Support (Ohvriabi).

Lifeline (MTÜ Eluliin) is a volunteer and professional association providing emotional,

psychological, and social counselling. Services include crisis support (e.g., debriefing

groups, EMDR), psychological rehabilitation, and targeted counselling for groups such

as trafficking victims, people involved in prostitution, individuals with addictions, and

______________________

80 Harjumaa, Ida Virumaa, Järvamaa, Jõgevamaa, Läänemaa together with Hiiumaa, Lääne Virumaa, Pärnumaa, Põlvamaa, Raplamaa, Saaremaa, Tartumaa, Valgamaa, Viljandimaa, Võrumaa. 81 Interview with MTÜ Eluliin, 19.11.2024, Later it was verified that at least one women's shelter provided help for a woman with temporary protection status.

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those living with HIV.82 The organization operates a dedicated phone line for persons

engaged in prostitution and regularly runs projects.

Tartu Welcome Centre supports migrants in settling into the Tartu and South Estonia

region. The team offers free consultations, registry services, and cultural or networking

events. They also provide information on NGOs and SIB services for GBV survivors

of migrant origin when needed.83

Tartu University Hospital (Tartu Ülikooli Kliinikum)84 is both a healthcare provider

and a research institution. For this study, representatives and a doctor were

interviewed to gather insights on referral pathways and identify areas for improvement

in the field of SEA and GBV.

Feministeerium (MTÜ Feministeerium) is an independent feminist organization

whose main areas of activity are communication, advocacy and empowerment of the

feminist community.85 The representatives of the NGO publish articles about GBV to

raise awareness about the existing issues.

Tallinn Women Crisis Centre (Tallinna Naiste Kriisikodu) supports survivors of

physical, sexual, psychological, and economic violence, with a focus on domestic

violence. The centre helps women - along with their children, if needed - break the

cycle of violence and works to prevent future abuse. Its mission is to ensure that every

child can grow up in a non-violent environment.86

In addition, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)

country office in Estonia provides referrals for survivors of GBV through its online

platform, which offers guidance to refugees and asylum-seekers on the risks of human

trafficking, a concern often linked to GBV. The website includes resources on how to

stay safe, recognize signs of exploitation, and seek assistance. In cases of suspected

human trafficking or related abuses, the online guidance advises individuals to contact

the Estonian police via the emergency number 112 or reach out SIB's human

trafficking prevention and victim assistance counselling line.

Finally, the referral point can be also a local municipality social worker or NGOs giving

help to GBV and SEA survivors, women or children that were mentioned above.

______________________

82 Eluliin, www.eluliin.ee/en. 83 Tartu Welcome Centre, https://tartuwelcomecentre.ee/. 84 Tartu University Hospital, www.kliinikum.ee/. 85 Feministeerium, https://feministeerium.ee/. 86 Tallinn Women Crisis Centre, https://naisteabi.ee/.

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6. Results

6.1 Interviews with victim support service providers and

stakeholders

For the purpose of this study interviews were conducted with service providers and

stakeholders from municipalities, state public agencies, NGOs, medical facilities,

reception and accommodation centres for refugees and asylum-seekers, women

shelters, and the International Organization for Migration (altogether n=15). In general,

the interviewees provided positive feedback regarding the overall organization and

coordination and referral pathways of VSS in Estonia. Nevertheless, the

misunderstanding of the referral pathway system due to its complexity,

alongside with a lack of professional expertise and lack of networking, may pose

a risk to the effective provision and referral of VSS in Estonia.

Key take-aways:

1. VSS are available to all individuals who have experienced GBV, including SEA,

regardless of their country of origin, citizenship, age, gender, or cultural and

religious background. However, service providers often face communication

challenges due to language barriers. Most speak Estonian, English, or Russian,

with limited capacity in other languages. Information about services is not

always available in languages understood by survivors, and materials are often

text-heavy with minimal visual content, which can limit accessibility - especially

for those unfamiliar with local languages.

2. Some VSS providers lack an emotional and empathic mindset and/or deep

knowledge of different cultures, religious beliefs, and traditions that often

impede achievement of desired outcomes.

3. Due to limited financial resources and priorities, VSS providers have limited

opportunity to participate in the international courses or trainings, which are

based on scientific evidence to be able to learn best European practices87 in

victims’ support.

The following paragraphs present results from interviews according to the main

themes.

Theme I - Legal and Regulatory Framework

All interviewees noted that the VSS listed in Article 15(2), points 1-8 of the Victim

Support Act (see pp.25-26) of the current report), should be reviewed, clarified, and

better explained. It was pointed out that the current list does not provide sufficient

detail about the content or scope of the services. Terms such as “basic victim support

service” or “psychosocial support in the event of crisis” are not widely understood, and

______________________

87 European project VICToRIIA, Best Practices in Victims’ Support: referrals, information, individual assessment (VICToRIIA), May 2019 https://victim-support.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/best-practices-report-final.pdf.

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there is uncertainty around how the term “crisis” should be interpreted in the absence

of a clear legal definition.

It should also be noted that not all VSS listed in the Act are applicable in every case.

For instance, restorative justice services (Article 15(2), point 6) are not used in cases

involving sexual abuse within families. The use of restorative justice in domestic

violence cases is not considered appropriate and is generally not supported in

practice.88

Theme II - Availability and Accessibility of Services and Effectiveness of Referral

Pathways

Victim Support Services (VSS) are a service regulated by the Victim Support

Act89 and is available for all people in Estonia who have experienced GBV/SEA

regardless of country of origin, social status, age, religion, citizenship, etc.90 There are

no legal barriers to access the services once individual has received the legal status

of asylum-seeker or has international/temporary protection and is registered in the

national population register.91 NGOs with whom the interviews were organized

emphasized that they refer people to the VSS of SIB but do not provide these services

themselves. Although from the legal perspective, this is seen as a positive issue,

however, in practice forcibly displaced persons who have experienced GBV are

more prone to vulnerability92 due to their social and economic status, poor or

inadequate language skills as well as limited knowledge of available services and

referral pathways. Therefore, there are practical issues that need to be addressed.

First, there is some confusion among NGOs regarding the eligibility for VSS. Some

NGO representatives believe that only individuals who have reported the incident to

the police can access these services through SIB. According to SIB, however, this is

no longer a requirement since VSS are provided based on the assessment of the

individual's needs. The Tallinn Welfare and Health Care Department noted that in

cases of domestic violence, services are provided through public welfare providers

(such as AS Hoolekandeteenused) in cooperation with SIB.93 For example, when

domestic violence occurs in an accommodation centre for asylum-seekers, survivors

are offered psychological support and legal assistance. However, “legal assistance” in

this context often refers to the police initiating criminal proceedings, while survivors

may not receive broader legal support, unlike the more comprehensive systems in

______________________

88 See more debate about the restorative justice here: https://restorativejustice.org.uk/blog/using-restorative-justice-cases- domestic-violence. 89§ 4.(1) For the purposes of this Act, victim support means a system of victim support services organized by the state and compensations for victims of crime. (2) For the purposes of this Act, a victim means a person who is harmed or dies as a result of a crime, violence or event of crisis, https://www.riigiteataja.ee/en/eli/503042023004/consolide. 90 Interview with the Social Insurance Board. 91 Interview with Tallinn Welfare and Health Care Department (Tallinna Sotsiaal- ja Tervishoiuamet). 92 Interview with Tallinn Women's Crisis Centre NGO (Naiste Kriisikodu). 93 Interview with Tallinn Welfare and Health Care Department (Tallinna Sotsiaal- ja Tervishoiuamet).

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place in Nordic countries.94 Individuals with legal residence status in Estonia receive

services either through local government structures or the SIB’s VSS.95

Second, service providers often encounter challenges in communication with forcibly

displaced people due to language barriers. Most of the interviewees communicate in

three main languages: Estonian, English, and Russian. Only a few of them speak other

languages.96 Information about services is not always available in languages that the

survivors understand (except English, Russian, Estonian). Following the 2022 large-

scale arrival of refugees from Ukraine, some information is available also in Ukrainian.

The information sheets and booklets are provided in text with little visual illustrations

that might help forcibly displaced people recognize acts of violence or sexual abuse.97

It should be noted that translation services are provided for a two-year period within

the VSS. It is commonly expected that during a two-year period, the forcibly displaced

people are able to get sufficient knowledge of the Estonian language.98 The two-year

period of translation services is quite short, and some people might need more time to

deal with the case of GBV and be better integrated into society. Consequently, there

should be some other alternatives to provide translation services after the two-

year period is over.

All interviewees agreed that communication with refugees and asylum-seekers from

the Middle East has been more challenging compared to those from Russian,

Ukrainian, English, Spanish, or French-speaking countries, mainly due to the scarcity

of skilled translators proficient in languages such as Arabic, Aramaic, Farsi, or

Punjabi.99 They have also mentioned that body language and gesticulation are not

always helpful. Due to poor communication, many refugees and asylum-seekers

experience fear and mistrust towards representatives of state agencies,100 which

often leads to them rejecting the assistance offered by state authorities. The fear of

disclosing domestic violence and sexual abuse is often linked to the misconception,

that they might be deported because of contacting the police.101

Third, service providers may lack sufficient awareness, knowledge, and expertise

to effectively work with individuals from diverse cultural and social

backgrounds. They might not always recognize the differences in traditions, cultural

practices, and religious aspects among refugees from low- and middle-income

______________________

94 Interview with Feministeerium. See also G. Roosaar, 24.10.2024. ‘Estonia needs the “Yes Means Yes” model of affirmative consent. A report from the President Kaljulaid Foundation’s Tallinn Consent Law Forum’, https://feministeerium.ee/en/estonia- needs-the-yes-means-yes-model-of-affirmative-consent-a-report-from-the-president-kaljulaid-foundations-tallinn-consent-law- forum/. 95Interview with Tallinn Welfare and Health Care Department (Tallinna Sotsiaal- ja Tervishoiuamet). https://www.palunabi.ee/et/vota-uhendust. 96 Interview with International Migration Organization (Rahvusvaheline Migratsiooniorganisatsioon) 97 Interview with International Protection Counsels. 98 Interview with the Social Insurance Board. 99 Interview with International Protection Counsels. 100 As noted by interviewees, the state authorities are repressive in many low- and middle-income countries. 101 Interview with Eluliin.

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countries. Many interviewees emphasized that regardless of service providers’

education level and working experience, they lack an emotional and empathic

approach and therefore face challenges in understanding survivors’ psychological

experiences102 and the underlying causes of their low self-esteem. Therefore,

consultations and services provided for people who have experienced GBV must take

their psychosocial needs into account.103

Having general knowledge about the cultural diversity, religious beliefs, and traditions

of different countries does not automatically translate into practical skills for

establishing and maintaining trust-based, mutually respectful dialogue with individuals

from diverse identities and cultural backgrounds.104 Furthermore, the identification

of domestic (family) violence and sexual abuse remains often misrecognized

unless forcibly displaced people do not share their experiences.105 The identification

of violence and sexual abuse is difficult, because the topic of domestic (family)

violence and sexual abuse is stigmatized and reporting about the violence, is often

considered to be socially unacceptable among forcibly displaced people, because it is

considered a private family matter that should remain within the household.106 In many

Eastern cultures, discussing personal or sensitive issues publicly is uncommon and is

often expressed as “Do not air your dirty laundry in public”.107 Women seeking shelter

often avoid discussions due to cultural and traditional differences, mistrust of state

agency representatives, limited language skills (e.g., illiteracy in some cases), and

financial dependence on their spouses. Domestic violence typically comes to light only

when a woman's tolerance has been exceeded.108 Available mental health services,

even when referrals are made, are often underused by forcibly displaced individuals

due to stigma, fear, and the perception of mental health as a taboo subject.109

Fourth, limited access to training based on scientific evidence leads to

misunderstandings about the challenges faced by refugees and asylum-seekers.110

With growing market demands, all specialists, especially newcomers, require regular

training before working with refugees and asylum-seekers affected by GBV.111

Interviewees emphasized the importance of training and courses to stay updated

on legal amendments, referral pathways, and to provide accurate information to

refugees and asylum-seekers. They agreed that topic-specific training (e.g., self-

help psychological training or communication skills for working with violence survivors)

is mandatory during the first year of employment, with the required number of

sessions ranging from two to five, depending on the organization. Only one

______________________

102 Interview with Tallinna Naiste Kriisikodu. 103 Interview with Tallinn Welfare and Health Care Department (Tallinna Sotsiaal- ja Tervishoiuamet). 104 Interview with Rändekeskus. 105 All interviewees. 106 Ibid. 107See the meaning of the idiom in Merriam-Webster Dictionary, https://www.merriam- webster.com/dictionary/air%20one%27s%20dirty%20laundry. 108 Interview with Tallinn Welfare and Health Care Department (Tallinna Sotsiaal- ja Tervishoiuamet). 109 Ibid. 110 Ibid. 111 All interviewees.

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organization required training certificates before employment. Topic-specific training

is typically provided internally or by local organizations. However, specialists working

directly with refugees often lack access to international networks, except for those

in medical, state, or international institutions. Barriers include the exclusivity of

professional networks, high costs of overseas training, limited funding, and insufficient

knowledge about available networks.

Compared to other West European countries, Estonia has limited experience in

working with refugees, especially it was the case prior to the Russian-Ukrainian war.112

As a result, specialists often lack insights into how institutional coordination is

organized in these countries. Beyond technical know-how (including interpretation

services used for survivors who speak languages other than Estonian, English or

Russian), understanding cultural diversity and enhancing communication skills

are crucial. Most rely on independent research and express a need for networking

opportunities to learn from European counterparts, particularly in Finland and Sweden.

One interviewee highlighted the importance of in-depth, research-based training

that incorporates real-world case studies. They suggested that such training

include problem-solving, and collaboration in mixed groups with healthcare providers,

psychologists, sociologists, and legal experts. This approach would introduce new

concepts and foster integrative thinking beyond routine practices.113

The interviewees emphasized that training and awareness-raising programmes,

campaigns about domestic violence and sexual abuse, and available VSS are

needed for the entire population in Estonia in different languages.114 Domestic

violence and sexual abuse are equally prevalent in Estonian families, particularly

during holidays and weekends. However, there is a common misconception that such

issues are more common among migrants or asylum-seekers from low- and middle-

income countries, leading to a focus on training aimed at integrating them into Estonian

society, culture, and social norms.115

Fifth, it should be clarified that service provision and referral pathways are two

separate issues. There is a need for expertise to understand their problems, identify

their needs, and assess potential threats to their health or well-being. Some

interviewees noted that cultural differences might hinder local social workers and other

specialists from fully understanding offenses committed in the name of community

honour, which are acts of violence or coercion aimed at preserving or restoring the

perceived honour of a family or community.116

______________________

112 Interview with Tallinna Rändekeskus. 113 Interview with International Protection Counsels. 114 All interviewees. 115 Interview Tartu Ülikooli Kliinikum. 116 Interview with International Protection Counsels, see more about honour crimes: https://www.britannica.com/topic/honour- killing.

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An empathetic and perceptive individual, even without extensive professional

experience, can still deliver high-quality services. In contrast, someone lacking a

professional network may face challenges in connecting individuals to the appropriate

services at the right time. Therefore, the evaluation of effectiveness of referral

pathways depends on the professional experience and available network.117 The

average experience working in the field of interviewees was around seven to ten years,

while few have 20 years of work experience.

The interviewees from NGOs expressed concerns about limited access to and

availability of services due to restricted funding and prioritization of security in

funding allocations. Current services fail to meet all survivors' needs, and insufficient

funds make it impossible to hire additional caseworkers or specialists. As a result,

NGOs are forced to limit the time dedicated to each individual.118

Theme III - Institutional Roles and Coordination

The role of institutions ranges from providing information and assistance with legal

documentation to offering psychological counselling, medical support, and shelter for

women and children affected by GBV and/or SEA, as well as coordinating services.

While not all interviewed institutions provide VSS directly, they often refer asylum-

seekers, refugees, and other affected individuals to relevant resources. Institutional

representatives were generally aware of each other’s roles and the available

services. Although referral pathways were described as accessible, partly due to

Estonia’s small size.

Theme IV - Satisfaction and Service Quality

Most representatives of the service providers confirmed that they do not collect

feedback from refugees and asylum-seekers or people experienced GBV due to

ethical considerations and because these people usually do not come back.119

Therefore, the organizations do not have any standard feedback form. Refugees and

asylum-seekers are free to write about their experience, but they are not required.

Nevertheless, SIB has recently issued a new platform to assess satisfaction with the

VSS.120 The results of the project will be published in the coming years.

Almost all interviewees noted that migrants, refugees, and asylum-seekers often feel

uncomfortable with the healthcare booking system and long waiting times in

Estonia.121 This discomfort is not due to a lack of digital skills, but rather differences in

how healthcare is organized compared to their home countries. Many are accustomed

______________________

117 Interview with International Protection Counsels, Tallinna Rändekeskus, Tallinna Naiste Kriisikodu, International Migration Office, Tallinn Welfare and Health Care Department (Tallinna Sotsiaal- ja Tervishoiuamet). 118 Interview Feministeerium, Eluliin, Tallinna Naiste Kriisikodu. 119 Interview with Tartu University Kliinikum and International Protection Counsels. 120 Ohvriabi, Feedback, https://www.palunabi.ee/et/tagasiside. 121 Interviews with the International Migration Office, Reception Centre for Asylum-seekers, Tallinna Naiste Tugikeskus.

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to accessing family doctors directly during walk-in hours, whereas in Estonia, non-

urgent cases often involve long waits and no direct contact with the family doctor.

Theme V - Recommendations for Improvement

All interviewees emphasized the importance of raising public awareness on GBV and

improving information dissemination to the public. Specific recommendations

received from the interviewees are outlined below:

1. Create visual information sheets with pictures and animations to make GBV

information accessible for those who cannot read or understand commonly

spoken languages in Estonia.

2. Raise awareness and understanding of GBV and cultural differences among

stakeholders, including educators at all levels. Provide training to address

biases and improve engagement, especially for those working long-term in this

field.

3. Strengthen cooperation with Nordic and Western European countries to

enhance referral pathways and identify additional services needed alongside

existing ones.

4. Avoid piloting restorative justice services in cases of sexual abuse involving

intimate partners or family members, as specialized interventions are required.

5. Encourage open discussions on GBV, especially with healthcare professionals

like general practitioners, gynaecologists, and nurses, to create a supportive

environment for survivors.

6. Revise policies for trafficking and sexual exploitation survivors to remove

barriers, such as the fear of deportation, that prevent them from reporting

crimes and seeking help.

7. Expand the number of service providers and improve service efficiency by

training new specialists to meet the growing demand for GBV support.

8. Increase funding for organizations offering support to GBV survivors, enabling

them to expand and improve their services.

9. Ensure better access to free legal counselling so survivors can effectively

navigate their situations with appropriate legal support.

6.2 Interviews with individuals holding temporary status in Estonia

For this study, online interviews were conducted with five women aged 24–55, all

holding temporary protection status and having arrived from Ukraine in March 2022.

Participants were informed of their right to skip any questions they found

uncomfortable and could withdraw at any time. Two interviewees reported experiences

of gender-based (domestic) violence. Among the group, two raised concerns about

the quality of services received upon arrival and during their stay, while one noted

issues with accessibility. Although most interviewees were generally satisfied with the

availability and coordination of services, they also shared suggestions for

improvement, which are summarized below.

Study on the assessment of the existing referral pathways for forcibly displaced and stateless people

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Basic information, information sharing and awareness raising in GBV and SEA

The interviewees reported that upon arrival in Estonia, they were provided with the

emergency number (112) and the family doctor consultation phone number (1220).

They confirmed that no information booklets were made available or provided

regarding the prevention or reporting of violence and sexual abuse, including

during the information days for newly arrived refugees. Information about services for

survivors of violence was only seen in the offices of PBGB and SIB. Nevertheless, the

information was not comprehensive - there was no list of VSS or instructions on

how to access them, but rather general information urging individuals to report such

incidents if they occurred. One person who had experienced GBV confirmed that

access to the VSS and women's shelter service was coordinated by the police.

Further help and services were provided by the women's shelter office. This included

translation services, assistance with reviewing rental contracts, rehabilitation services,

psychological help, and more. The interviewees suggested that there should be more

advertising within social groups (Facebook, Telegram) and information seminars

focused on GBV. These initiatives and seminars could be organized by local

governments, public authorities, or NGOs.

As mentioned earlier, interviewees emphasized that many people are unsure of

where to seek help or where to get support. Many people are reluctant to report

domestic violence due to socio-economic concerns.122 Information should be made

available in places where large groups of people gather, such as healthcare and

educational institutions, and provided in languages other than Estonian. It would be

beneficial to have a single point of access (such as a one-stop shop or libraries) where

all relevant information is available.123 Based on the interviewees' experiences,

current information is dispersed across various websites, making it difficult to

know where to look for it.

Fear of public authorities’ interference

Interviews with forcibly displaced people revealed low awareness of GBV, or

reluctance to acknowledge being survivors. One interviewee started to understand her

situation after she passed some training where mental violence was discussed.

Nevertheless, she did not turn to the police as she felt that she did not have enough

proof to justify the claim. As she did not turn to the police, she also did not get

information about the VSS from the police. She received some counselling from her

doctors from Ukraine. She contacted the psychologist and psychiatrist in Ukraine and

got assistance online. She attempted to handle her situation on her own, fearing that

seeking help from the local government's social worker might lead to her children

being taken away.

______________________

122 Interview with the immigrant on 16 January 2025. 123 Interview 17.01.2025.

Study on the assessment of the existing referral pathways for forcibly displaced and stateless people

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These findings also confirm the findings of the SEIS study that “according to the

respondents, the main barriers that people who have been subjected to GBV could

face when trying to access GBV services would be the following: Stigma and shame

(46 per cent); Lack of awareness (31 per cent); Language and cultural barriers (23 per

cent); Lack of trust in host country services (20 per cent); Fear of retaliation (18 per

cent); Discrimination and bias (14 per cent); Financial constraints (8 per cent);

Inadequate service availability (8 per cent); Lack of trained professionals (4 per cent);

Legal and institutional barriers (2 per cent), etc.”124

Services

To support recovery from war-related trauma and/or experiences of GBV, a more

holistic and person-centred approach is needed. According to interviewees, services

are generally delivered in the same way to all individuals, regardless of whether they

arrived as forcibly displaced persons, students, or for business purposes. In practice,

this means services mirror those offered to the local population, without consideration

for migration background. Despite the widely acknowledged understanding that “one

size does not fit all”, the current system does not adequately address the specific

vulnerabilities and needs of refugees. One interviewee mentioned that no one asked

what they needed. As a result, there are no services specifically tailored for refugees.

Satisfaction with received services

Individuals who experienced GBV expressed high satisfaction with VSS they

received in Estonia. Nevertheless, more efforts are needed to provide psychological

services. Survivors of GBV are vulnerable and have barriers to open themselves to

foreign people and share private issues.

______________________

124 UNHCR, 2024 Estonia Socio-Economic Insights Survey, https://microdata.unhcr.org/index.php/catalog/1222/, p.17.

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7. Conclusion

This chapter presents the main findings on the accessibility, availability, and

effectiveness of VSS and referral mechanisms. The research questions are addressed

in a structured and consistent manner.

The analysis indicates that the status and rights of survivors have been amended in

the Code of Criminal Procedure. In Estonia, equal treatment is guaranteed by the

Constitution, the Equal Treatment Act, and the Gender Equality Act. These legal

frameworks ensure access to VSS for all individuals in Estonia, regardless of their

social status. The Victim Support Act, including the definition of a victim, has been

revised to align with EU Directive 2012/29/EU, which establishes minimum standards

for the rights, support, and protection of victims of crime, replacing Council Framework

Decision 2001/220/JHA.

In Estonia, VSS are state-funded and available nationwide. They are typically located

within or near police stations, similar to the practice in other European countries such

as Belgium, Finland, Sweden, and the Netherlands. Effective cooperation and referral

pathways between institutions contribute to the protection of survivors and support the

enforcement of their rights. The following paragraphs present responses to the

research questions.

RQ1: What changes in domestic legislation or social welfare organizations are

needed to ensure equal access to VSS for forcibly displaced people?

Access to VSS is available to all individuals residing in Estonia, regardless of their

social or economic status. Interviewees confirmed that socio-legal status is not

considered a barrier to accessing necessary support services. The provision of VSS

is based on an assessment of the survivor’s needs, typically carried out by a specialist.

While specialists are expected to have the appropriate knowledge, skills, and

professional behaviour, the assessment process remains partly subjective. What is

considered appropriate support for a survivor may not always align with their actual

needs or experiences.

The need for psychological support is assessed by victim support officers using

specific tools, such as a structured questionnaire. In the Vao and Vägeva

Accommodation Centres, psychological support is available on site, while other

centres refer individuals to external psychologists or psychiatrists. In cases of repeated

domestic violence, the MARAC model is applied to coordinate responses across

relevant institutions.

RQ2: Does Estonian legislation regulate the prevention of and response to

violence, including GBV?

The prevention of and response to violence is regulated in the Victim Support Act and

by criminal law provisions. Nevertheless, the prevention of violence might be better

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regulated in national school curricula. The provisions of domestic and sexual violence

can be highlighted better in the legal norms.

RQ3: What referral pathways exist and have been implemented to guide

individuals who have experienced GBV to VSS services? Are these services

comprehensive, effective, timely, and accessible?

Seeking help can begin in different ways, with one option being to turn to the police,

who then guide survivors to VSS. However, in many cases, social services or NGOs

serve as the initial point of contact, providing survivors with immediate support and

referrals to relevant services. Organizations providing VSS collaborate with NGOs and

other service providers to ensure survivors receive comprehensive assistance tailored

to their needs. The VSS are provided by the SIB and are available in all counties of

Estonia. If needed, survivors can receive support from doctors and psychologists, legal

counselling, shelter for up to six months, and employment counselling. The full list of

services is outlined in the Victim Support Act. Doctors can also refer their patients to

the VSS.

The interviewees gave positive feedback about the services they received. Most

complaints were related to limited accessibility and long waiting times for family

doctors or specialized medical care. Interviewed individuals were not accustomed to

waiting for an appointment with a general practitioner (GP) and expected to be seen

by a doctor on the same day. Overall, the VSS services were perceived as being

delivered professionally.

RQ4: How is the coordination between these institutions organized to ensure

that individuals who have experienced GBV receive comprehensive and

effective support?

A list of organizations and NGOs supporting individuals who have experienced GBV

is provided in Annex 1 of the study. Based on interviews with various service providers,

it appears that they are generally well-informed about the services offered by other

actors in the field. Opportunities for joint training have been available, and there is

ongoing communication between different NGOs and SIB’s VSS.

The referral mechanism between the police and VSS is well established, supported by

the presence of victim support staff in police stations, formalized procedures for

handling domestic violence cases, and close working relationships between police

officers and victim support personnel. While medical professionals and institutions are

not formal members of the MARAC network, they often refer high-risk survivors and

help identify cases involving sexual abuse and violence. However, interviews revealed

that health institutions are not fully integrated into the broader referral system, which

may limit coordination and continuity of care for survivors. Additionally, the Ministry of

Social Affairs has issued guidelines for handling cases involving trafficking survivors,

which can be used by caseworkers.

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RQ5: What roles do various institutions and actors (e.g., social support

services, healthcare, law enforcement, NGOs) play in providing support for

individuals who have experienced GBV?

The VSS also provides guidance to specialists such as doctors, social workers, and

teachers. VSS offers various training programmes, including psychological first aid,

support for survivors of hate crimes and human trafficking, as well as counselling and

access to essential training and learning resources.

The current research indicates that information about available services can be found

on the websites of relevant agencies and NGOs. However, there may be challenges

in accessing specialized healthcare due to long waiting times and language barriers,

particularly if the survivor does not speak Estonian, English, or Russian as their native

language. The referral standards can be clearer and more visible. Furthermore,

coordination between different institutions can be improved to ensure protection

standards for refugees and asylum-seekers.

RQ6: How are individuals (who have experienced GBV) informed about relevant

social support services, and what are the primary sources of information for

forcibly displaced people?

The study confirmed that information is also disseminated through social media and

shared among survivors via personal contacts. For example, when individuals seek

help from NGOs such as the ERC or EHRC, they are referred to the VSS of SIB if

needed. Some services are also provided by the medical professionals working in the

crisis help centres (Kriisiabi).

The role of local governments and social workers is crucial in identifying issues faced

by GBV survivors, particularly among refugees. For asylum-seekers and residents of

asylum reception centres, access to information is better ensured, as details about

available services are provided in both written and oral formats. Reception centres

have also dedicated information boards where relevant details can be posted. In

contrast, individuals living outside reception centres often rely on online sources or

social media platforms such as Telegram, Facebook, TikTok, and Instagram to access

information. This research confirms the results of the study Developing Directive-

Compatible Practices for the Identification, Assessment, and Referral of Victims:

National Report, Estonia125 conducted by the Institute of Baltic Studies in 2017. The

studies conclude that referral pathways function effectively if there is a strong network

of specialists.

During the data collection process for this study, available services and referral

mechanisms were identified and described above. In Estonia, all essential VSS -

including healthcare, psychological support, safety, security, and access to justice -

______________________

125Maarja Vollmer, Anna Markina, Developing directive-compatible practices for the identification, assessment and referral of victims, 2017, https://www.ibs.ee/en/publications/developing-directive-compatible-practices-for-the-identification-assessment- and-referral-of-victims/.

Study on the assessment of the existing referral pathways for forcibly displaced and stateless people

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are available for refugees, asylum-seekers, and stateless persons who have

experienced GBV. These services are provided by the SIB, hospitals, family doctors,

psychologists, psychiatrists, and specialized NGOs.

There is close cooperation between the police and VSS, as victim support workers are

stationed in police buildings. Women’s shelters collaborate with child protection

services and NGOs that provide legal assistance and psychological support. This

system is well-established and generally considered effective.

RQ7: What legal, practical as well as organizational and administrative barriers

do individuals, who have experienced GBV, face in accessing VSS in a timely

and adequate manner?

It was identified that certain legal gaps exist, as service providers are unclear about

the exact content of services and the definition of a “crisis situation”. While the names

of VSS are listed in VSA, neither their specific scope nor meaning are clearly defined.

The confusion among providers results in a situation where services might not be

referred.

Interviews revealed that many refugees are unaware of their rights, where to seek

services, or to whom to turn in case of a need. They often do not know that they are

entitled to assistance and financial compensation for damages. Additionally, not all

individuals understand the meaning of GBV, the level of societal tolerance for such

acts, or the local values that protect survivors.

According to interviewees, information about available services is too scattered and

not easily accessible for those in need. It was suggested that information on GBV

should be displayed in locations where people frequently visit, such as doctors'

surgeries, SIB offices, libraries, bus stations, public spaces, cinemas, and buses.

Moreover, it would be beneficial to provide informational materials and visual

explanations in places where people spend extended periods, such as medical waiting

rooms, cafeterias, and shops.

Language barriers were also highlighted as a significant concern. Limited proficiency

in Estonian places vulnerable individuals in a more difficult position, as it can restrict

access to essential information and hinder communication with service providers.

Additionally, poor knowledge of Estonian creates obstacles in the job market,

particularly for positions that require fluency in the language.

RQ8: Are forcibly displaced people, who have experienced GBV, satisfied with

the accessibility and quality of the services provided? If not, what were the

primary reasons for limited or inadequate support?

The satisfaction rating among the interviewed individuals was very high. It was

suggested that having a designated platform, such as a website or a feedback post

box, would allow individuals to share their opinions about the services, participate

Study on the assessment of the existing referral pathways for forcibly displaced and stateless people

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actively, and respond to issues as they arise. Additionally, the efficient processing of

asylum applications and the prompt issuance of documents were highly appreciated.

Specific recommendations are provided in the sub-section ‘Results II: Interviews with

Individuals Who Experienced GBV’.

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8. Recommendations

During the last decade, Estonia has made remarkable progress in preventing,

mitigating risks, and responding to gender-based violence (GBV). The country has

dedicated significant efforts and resources to enhance its policies, legislation, and

practices. Notably, forcibly displaced and stateless persons have been integrated into

the state protection system ensuring access to GBV-related support and services on

the same footing as citizens. Despite the resources allocated by the state and the well-

established services provided through victim support services, certain refugee-specific

aspects should be considered. These include enhancing awareness in various

languages, improving safe and meaningful access for forcibly displaced and stateless

persons to available services, and ensuring efficient survivor-centered support. Based

on the study, the following recommendations are proposed:

Strengthening the survivor-centered approach

To ensure the effective provision of GBV support services, it is crucial to consistently

apply a survivor-centred approach. This approach should be grounded in voluntary

and informed consent, while also considering the cultural, religious, and diverse

backgrounds of forcibly displaced and stateless persons. Engaging with refugee

communities to raise awareness about GBV and and how to tackle the problem. The

importance of a survivor-centered approach is essential in creating a supportive

environment for survivors.

Elaborating on the types, scope, and duration of GBV services

Detailed instructions on the types, scope and duration of GBV support will facilitate

awareness raising, reduce uncertainties and ensure that forcibly displaced and

stateless individuals understand their rights and the assistance they can expect.

Asylum-seekers and refugees often need one-on-one counselling and individual

support with referrals. They can face specific issues related to their legal status,

documentation, and asylum procedures. Therefore, it is crucial for them to have timely

access to legal counselling and the assistance of a qualified lawyer. The development

of clearer guidance on handling non-violent forms of GBV, recognizing the needs of

specific groups such as older people, persons with disabilities, and unaccompanied or

separated children is essential. Additionally, staff working with these groups should

receive appropriate and continuous training. Furthermore, improved case

management and easy-to-understand support materials, developed with feedback

from forcibly displaced and stateless persons, would be valuable additions to the

system.

Enhancing access to interpretation services

Interpretation services should be more flexible in case a long-term need for this service

is identified. The current two-year standard period may not be sufficient for forcibly

displaced and stateless persons as some of them may require more time to resolve

Study on the assessment of the existing referral pathways for forcibly displaced and stateless people

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their problems and continuous support will ensure their access to services. Alternative

options for accessing assistance in the Estonian language after this period ends could

be explored, such as services offered by volunteers or NGOs, provided they receive

sufficient funding.

Improving national legislation

To enhance the national legal framework, it is important to consider amending sections

§§ 141, 1411, and 143 of the Penal Code of Estonia to fully align with Article 36 of the

Istanbul Convention. These amendments should ensure that sexual acts are based

on voluntary consent and allow for punishment even in the absence of physical force

or threats.

Enhancing access to information

Ensuring that GBV support services are accessible to all survivors, including those

from diverse backgrounds, requires more attention to providing information in multiple

languages and considering cultural, religious and other diversity and sensitivities.

Language barriers remain a challenge, as most service-related information is available

only in Estonian, English, or Russian, limiting accessibility for those who do not speak

these languages. Information is often text-heavy with limited visual content, making it

difficult for some individuals to understand. While the police website offers some

materials, including videos and leaflets, they are primarily available in Estonian.126

Visually engaging informational materials, such as leaflets, posters with clear visual

content, and short video clips, should be developed for use by social workers, police,

and other professionals during client interactions. These materials should explain

unacceptable types of violence and where individuals can seek help.

Modernizing information dissemination

The study revealed that traditional information channels - such as television, radio,

newspapers, and leaflets - are becoming less effective. While some interviewees

initially recommended increasing TV and radio outreach, they later acknowledged that

they primarily consume content on platforms like Netflix, YouTube, and social media.

Public awareness campaigns could benefit from adapting to these changing habits,

recognizing that different generations access information through different channels.

Additionally, utilizing trusted community channels, such as local Facebook groups and

other social media groups, to share information and exploring innovative methods for

information dissemination might ensure broad, effective and inclusive outreach across

all demographic groups. Furthermore, bus stops and public transportation could be

used for broader dissemination of information and raising awareness about GBV

definitions, available services, and protection mechanisms. Further study can be

considered to clarify the commonly used media channels and social groups.

______________________

126 Police and Border Guard Board, Prevention Projects and Campaigns, www.politsei.ee/et/juhend/ennetusprojektid/ahistava- jalitamise-kampaania.

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Strengthening capacity development of all stakeholders

Sustainable and continuous GVB capacity development programme is crucial due to

evolving needs and personnel turnover, ensuring staff are equipped to handle various

forms of violence, including psychological, sexual, and financial abuse. Interviewees

from both service providers and NGOs emphasized that despite existing trainings and

available information, there is an ongoing need for comprehensive training for all

stakeholders, including service providers and survivors. These trainings should cover

GBV definitions, effective response strategies, referral pathways, culturally sensitive

support methods, interview techniques, survivor-centred approach, and refugee

protection standards. Online training modules should be integrated into regular

capacity-building programmes for both new and experienced staff, updated regularly

to reflect current good practices.

Enhancing partnership, collaboration and coordination

Fostering stronger partnerships among stakeholders will contribute to more effective

prevention and response measures. While authorities have established collaboration

with service providers and women's support organizations, broader partnerships

among service providers, civil society organizations working with specific groups, UN

agencies, women and refugee-led organizations, and refugee communities, can

enhance the effectiveness of services and raising awareness campaigns and avoid

duplications. Regular coordination meetings to strengthen capacity, facilitate

collection, exchange, and dissemination of data, and share good practices, technical

knowledge, and experiences of forcibly displaced and stateless persons, can

significantly improve service provision, facilitate communication and optimize resource

allocation.

Ensuring allocation of adequate resources for service providers

Considering that women’s centres play a key role in providing shelter and support,

they require adequate resources and attention to effectively assist asylum-seekers

and refugees. Additionally, NGOs providing specialized assistance and refugee-led

organizations offering services to vulnerable groups should be also engaged and

supported. The state funding should cover provision of services, capacity

development, and infrastructure support.

Strengthening of monitoring and evaluation

While the study findings show some improvements in collecting feedback from GBV

survivors, there is still a need to implement robust monitoring and evaluation

mechanisms to assess the effectiveness of the survivor-centered approach. Regularly

seeking feedback from survivors is crucial for understanding their needs and

experiences. This feedback should be systematically used to continuously refine and

enhance services, ensuring they remain truly survivor centered.

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https://www.riigiteataja.ee/akt/226092017001, 15.12.2024.

OECD. (2021). Applying Evaluation Criteria Thoughtfully. OECD Publishing, Paris.

Doi: 10.1787/543e84ed-en, Retrieved from:

https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/applying-evaluation-criteria-

thoughtfully_543e84ed-en.html (Accessed 11 December 2024).

Ohvriabi seaduse eelnõu seletuskiri

https://eelnoud.valitsus.ee/main/mount/docList/33c74e91-032b-42fb-9a96-

783ae46493b0?activity=1#70tSNHbl 15.12.2024.

P. Laskey jt. (2019). A systematic literature review of intimate partner violence

victimization: An inclusive review across gender and sexuality. Aggression and

Violent Behaviour, 47, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2019.02.014

Sotsiaalministri 06.01.2010 vastu võetud määrus nr 2 “Perearsti ja temaga koos

töötavate tervishoiutöötajate tööjuhend” § 5 lg 4.

Sotsiaalkindlustusamet, SKA Aastaraamat 2023

Sotsiaalkindlustusamet. (2024). Eesti elanikkonna teadlikkuse uuring soopõhise

vägivalla ja inimkaubanduse valdkonnas. In English: The Social Insurance Board.

(2024). ‘Study on Public Awareness on Gender-Based Violence and Human

Trafficking in Estonia’.

S. R. Fatema, jt. (2019). Women's health-related vulnerabilities in natural disasters: a

systematic review protocol. BMJ Open, 9(12),032079. Doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2019-

032079

UNHCR. Gender-based violence. https://www.unhcr.org/what-we-do/protect-human-

rights/protection/gender-based-violence

Study on the assessment of the existing referral pathways for forcibly displaced and stateless people

who have experienced GBV, including SEA in Estonia

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UNHCR Policy on the Prevention of, Risk Mitigation and Response to GBV

https://www.unhcr.org/media/unhcr-policy-prevention-risk-mitigation-and-response-

gender-based-violence-2020 ( Accessed 19 December 2024).

UNHCR. What is sexual exploitation, abuse and harassment?

https://www.unhcr.org/asia/what-we-do/how-we-work/tackling-sexual-exploitation-

abuse-and-harassment/what-sexual-exploitation

Victim Support Act1, RT I, 06.01.2023, 1, Adopted 14.12.2022.

Vägivallateenuste kokkulepe 2021-2025,

www.kriminaalpoliitika.ee/sites/krimipoliitika/files/elfinder/dokumendid/vagivallaennet

use_kokkulepe_2021-2025.pdf (Accessed 20 November 2024).

www.delfi.ee/artikkel/120344621/nousolekuseadus-tuleb-justiitsministeerium-saatis-

valjatootamiskavatsuse-kooskolastusringile (Accessed 19 December 2024).

www.delfi.ee/artikkel/120344621/nousolekuseadus-tuleb-justiitsministeerium-saatis-

valjatootamiskavatsuse-kooskolastusringile (Accessed 19 December 2024).

www.eesti.ee/eraisik/et/artikkel/toeoe-ja-toeoesuhted/toeoetamise-alused/vaelisriigi-

kutsekvalifikatsiooni-tunnustamine-eestis (Accessed 20 December 2024).

www.eluliin.ee/en (Accessed 27 December 2024).

www.ibs.ee/en/publications/developing-directive-compatible-practices-for-the-

identification-assessment-and-referral-of-victims/ (Accessed 27 December 2024).

www.hoolekandeteenused.ee/majutuskeskus/ (Accessed 27 December 2024).

www.just.ee/kuritegevus-ja-selle-ennetus/vagivallaennetuse-kokkulepe (Accessed

19 December 2024).

www.just.ee/sites/default/files/documents/2024-

03/Anal%C3%BC%C3%BCs%20seksuaalse%20enesem%C3%A4%C3%A4ramise

%20vastaste%20s%C3%BC%C3%BCtegude%20koosseisude%20vastavusest%20

EN%20Istanbuli%20konventsioonile.pdf (Accessed 19 December 2024).

www.justdigi.ee/uudised/analuus-kinnitab-seksuaalse-enesemaaramise-vastaste-

suutegude-koosseisud-ei-vasta-osaliselt (Accessed 31 December 2024).

www.kliinikum.ee/ (Accessed 27 December 2024).

www.kriminaalpoliitika.ee/sites/krimipoliitika/files/elfinder/dokumendid/ik_juhis_2019.

pdf (Accessed 31 December 2024).

www.palunabi.ee/et/vota-uhendust (Accessed 23 January 2025).

www.politsei.ee/et/juhend/ennetusprojektid/ahistava-jalitamise-kampaania

(Accessed 27 December 2024).

www.politsei.ee/files/Ennetus/kohtinguvagivalla-voldik.pdf?76c269e40e (Accessed

27 December 2024). www.politsei.ee/et/juhend/ennetusprojektid (Accessed 27

December 2024).

www.politsei.ee/et/juhend/ennetusprojektid/ahistava-jalitamise-kampaania

(Accessed 27 December 2024).

www.politsei.ee/et/juhend/ennetusalased-materjalid (Accessed 27 December 2024).

www.praxis.ee/uploads/2024/03/Seksuaalvagivalla-kohtueelne-uurimine.pdf

(Accessed 19 December 2024).

Study on the assessment of the existing referral pathways for forcibly displaced and stateless people

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www.sotsiaalkindlustusamet.ee/spetsialistile-ja-koostoopartnerile/ohvri-abistajale (27

December 2024).

www.sotsiaalkindlustusamet.ee/sites/default/files/documents/2024-

04/Eesti%20elanikkonna%20teadlikkuse%20uuring%20soop%C3%B5hise%20v%C

3%A4givalla%20ja%20inimkaubanduse%20valdkonnas.pdf (Accessed 05

November 2024).

www.tervisekassa.ee/en/organization/e-health-products/national-referral-system,

(Accessed 16 January 2025)

www.tooelu.ee/et/392/ukraina-sojapogenikud-ja-toosuhted (Accessed 23 January

2025).

www.unhcr.org/glossary (Accessed 05 November 2024).

Conducted interviews:

Interview with person holding temporary protection, 03.01.2025.

Interview with person holding temporary protection, 10.01.2025.

Interview with person holding temporary protection, 16.01.2025.

Interview with two persons holding temporary protection, 17.01.2025.

Interview with the Social Insurance Board, 20.12.2024.

Interview with International Protection Counsellors,14.11.2024.

Interview with MTÜ Eluliin, 19.11.2024.

Interview with Feministeerium, 21.11.2024.

Interview with Tallinn Welfare and Health Care Department (Tallinna Sotsiaal- ja

Tervishoiuamet), 22.11.2024.

Interview with Tallinna Rändekeskus, 15.11.2024.

Interview with Tallinna Naiste Tugikeskus (Women Support Centre), 14.11.2024.

Interview Tartu Ülikooli Kliinikum, 15.11.2024.

Interview the International Migration Organization Office in Tallinn, 20.11.2024.

Interview Reception Centre for Asylum-seekers, 19.11.2024.

Interview with Eesti Naiste Varjupaikade Liit, 15.11.2024.

Interview with Human Rights Centre in Tallinn, 19.11.2024.

Estonian Refugee Council, 18.11.2024.

Tartu Välismaalaste Teenuskeskus 22.11.2024.

Family doctor 15.11.2024.

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Annex I - List of organizations and people contacted

No ORGANIZATION CONTACT INFORMATION

1 Estonian Refugee Council (MTÜ Eesti Pagulasabi) www.pagulasabi.ee

2 Social Insurance Board (Sotsiaalkindlustusamet) www.sotsiaalkindlustusamet.ee

4 Estonian Human Rights Centre (Eesti Inimõiguste Keskus)

https://humanrights.ee/en/

5 Women Support and Information Centre (MTÜ Naiste Tugi-ja Teabekeskus) Tallinna Naiste Tugikeskus, Eesti Naiste Varjupaikade Liit

https://naistetugi.ee/ [email protected] [email protected]

6 International Organization of Migration (Rahvusvaheline Migratsiooniorganisatsioon)

[email protected] Tel.: +372 611 6088

7 Tallinn Women's Crisis Centre NGO (Tallinna Naiste Kriisikodu)

[email protected] https://naisteabi.ee/

8 Reception Centre for Asylum-seekers [email protected] https://www.politsei.ee/et/juhend/rahvus vaheline-kaitse/kasulikud-kontaktid

9 The International Protection Advisers at the Police and Border Guard Board

[email protected]

10 Ministry of Social Affairs (Sotsiaalministeerium) [email protected]

11 Life Line (MTÜ Eluliin) https://www.tallinn.ee/et/teenused/kriisi abi-noustamine

12 Tallinn Migration Centre (Tallinna Rändekeskus) https://www.tallinn.ee/et/randekeskus/ta llinna-randekeskus

13 Tartu Welcome Centre (Tartu Välismaalaste Teenuskeskus)

https://tartuwelcomecentre.ee/

17 The Estonian Society of Family Doctors (Eesti Perearstide Liit)

[email protected] [email protected]

18 The Estonian Society for Psychologists (Eesti Psühholoogide Liit)

[email protected]

19 Estonian Association for Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (Eesti Kognitiivse Käitumisteraapia Assotsiatsioon)

[email protected]

20 Estonian Gynaecologists Society(Eesti Naistearstide Selts)

[email protected]

21 Estonian Patients Union (Eesti Patsientide Liit) [email protected]

22 NGO My space (MTÜ Oma tuba, Feministeerium) MTÜ Oma Tuba, Telliskivi 60a/3, Tallinn, 10412

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[email protected]

23 NGO MONDO [email protected]

24 President Kaljulaid Foundation(President Kaljulaid Fond)

[email protected]

25 Tartu University Hospital (Tartu Ülikooli kliinikum) Gynaecologist

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Annex II – TAI permission

Soolist vägivalda kogenud sunniviisiliselt ümberasunud ja kodakondsuseta

inimeste olemasolevate suunamisteede hindamine

Taust ja eesmärk

Selles uuringus hinnati Eestis soolise vägivalla (SV), sealhulgas seksuaalse ärakasutamise ja

kuritarvitamise (SEA) kogenud sunniviisiliselt ümberasunud ja kodakondsuseta inimeste suunamisteede

tõhusust, kättesaadavust ja koordineerimist. Eesmärk oli tuvastada takistused ja

parandamisvõimalused , et tagada soolise vägivalla ohvritele õigeaegsed ja asjakohased tugiteenused.

Sooline vägivald Eestis

• 2023. aastal registreeriti Eestis 7 012 vägivallakuritegu, millest 3 186 olid perevägivalla juhtumid,

mis moodustab 45% kõigist vägivallakuritegudest.

• Vaatamata olemasolevatele teenustele ei otsi märkimisväärne hulk SV ohvritest abi, viidates

häbimärgistamisele, keelebarjäärile, teadlikkuse puudumisele ja hirmule võimude ees.

• 289 potentsiaalset inimkaubanduse ohvrit said riikliku abitelefoni kaudu toetust; ainult 5%

registreeritud vägivallajuhtumitest olid seksuaalkuriteod.

Uuringu metoodika

• Uurimuslik juhtumiuuring, mis kombineeris dokumendianalüüsi, õigus- ja poliitikaraamistiku

ülevaadet ning empiirilisi andmeid.

• 15 intervjuud sidusrühmade esindajatega (riigiasutused, MTÜd, teenusepakkujad).

• 5 individuaalintervjuud ajutise kaitse all olevate naistega.

Joonis 2. Ukraina põgenike teadlikkus soolise vägivallaga seotud teenustest (SEIS, 2024)

Joonis 1. 5 peamist takistust SV teenustele juurdepääsul Ukraina pagulaste seas (SEIS, 2024)

Peamised järeldused

• Suunamisteed on loodud ja toimivad, kuid teabe killustatus ja piiratud asutustevaheline

koordineerimine võivad vähendada nende tõhusust.

• Teenused on kättesaadavad kõigile SV ohvritele, olenemata nende õiguslikust seisundist.

Praktiliste takistuste hulka kuuluvad aga järgmised:

o Keelepiirangud (teenused ainult eesti, inglise, vene keeles).

o Kultuurierinevustest tingitud arusaamatused ja vähene traumateadlikkus tugipersonali

seas.

o Usaldamatus institutsioonide vastu ja hirm väljasaatmise ees pagulaste seas.

o Pagulaste vähene teadlikkus oma õigustest.

o MARACi mudel (Multi-Agency Risk Assessment Conference) on kõrge riskiga juhtumite

puhul peamine vahend, kuid nõuab laiemat institutsionaalset osalust.

Soovitused

1. Parandada mitmekeelset juurdepääsu, tagades, et teave on kättesaadav mitmes keeles, ja

töötada välja visuaalsed, mittetekstipõhised materjalid.

2. Tõhustada ohvrikeskseid lähenemisviise, mis põhinevad vabatahtlikul ja teadlikul nõusolekul,

võttes samal ajal arvesse ka sunniviisiliselt ümberasunud isikute kultuurilist, religioosset ja

mitmekesist tausta.

3. Parandada SV ohvrite juurdepääsu suulise tõlke teenustele ja õigusabile.

4. Tugevdada institutsioonidevahelist koostööd ja teabevahetust, et hõlbustada integreeritud

toetusraamistikke.

5. Investeerida pikaajalisse erialakoolitusse (eelkõige kultuuritundlikkuse koolitusse) ja tagada pidev

juurdepääs rahvusvahelistele parimatele tavadele.

6. Käivitada SV ja suunamisteede teadlikkuse tõstmise kampaaniad, mis on suunatud nii

ümberasunud elanikkonnale kui ka avalikkusele.

7. Rakendada tugevaid seire- ja hindamismehhanisme, et koguda tagasisidet SV-ohvritelt ja hinnata

ohvrikeskse lähenemise tõhusust.

Autorlus:

Uuringu viisid läbi: Prof. Lehte Roots ja Dr. Melita Sogomonjan

Tellija: UNHCR Põhjamaade ja Baltimaade esindus

Kuupäev: märts 2025

Kontaktisik: Mariia Khrapunenko, [email protected] | Tel. +372 5631 1239

Study on the assessment of the

existing referral pathways for forcibly

displaced and stateless people who

have experienced gender-based

violence (GBV), including sexual

exploitation and abuse (SEA) in

Estonia

FINAL REPORT

May 2025

The study is conducted by Prof. Lehte Roots and Melita Sogomonjan, PhD

The current study is commissioned by the UNHCR Representation for the Nordic and Baltic Countries

Study on the assessment of the existing referral pathways for forcibly displaced and stateless people

who have experienced GBV, including SEA in Estonia

2

Mariia Khrapunenko

Senior Field Associate

UNHCR Estonia

Email: [email protected]

Phone: +372 5631 1239

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Table of Content

Abbreviations and definitions ..................................................................................... 4

Executive summary .................................................................................................... 6

1. Introduction .......................................................................................................... 8

2. An overview of a situation with GBV and SEA in Estonia .................................. 10

3. Methodology of the study ................................................................................... 16

3.1 Phases of the Research and Research Questions .................................... 16

4. Legal and policy measures for the protection of victims of GBV and SEA in

Estonia ..................................................................................................................... 21

4.1 An overview of existing legislation ............................................................. 21

4.2 Legal definition of a victim .......................................................................... 22

4.3 Victims in criminal procedures ................................................................... 23

4.4 Right to linguistic assistance, interpretation and translation ....................... 23

4.5 Assessment of individual protection needs ................................................ 24

4.6 Right to be informed ................................................................................... 25

4.7 Rights to legal representation .................................................................... 25

4.8 Right to access victim support services ..................................................... 25

5. An overview of existing referral pathways and service providers ....................... 27

5.1 Available support services provided by the service providers .................... 27

6. Results ............................................................................................................... 33

6.1 Interviews with victim support service providers and stakeholders ............ 33

6.2 Interviews with individuals holding temporary status in Estonia ................. 39

7. Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 42

8. Recommendations ............................................................................................. 47

References ............................................................................................................... 50

Annex I - List of organizations and people contacted ............................................... 55

Annex II – TAI permission ........................................................................................ 57

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Abbreviations and definitions

Gender-Based Violence (GBV)

Gender-based violence (GBV) is ‘an umbrella term for any harmful act that is perpetrated against a person’s will and that is based on socially ascribed (i.e. gender) differences between males and females. It includes acts that inflict physical, sexual or mental harm or suffering, threats of such acts, coercion, and other deprivations of liberty. These acts can occur in public or in private’.1

ERC Estonian Refugee Council

Health Care Service (HCS)

As defined in the Healthcare Services Organization Act Article 2 (1), HCS is the activity of a health worker to prevent, diagnose and treat illness, injury or poisoning with the aim of alleviating a person's ailments, preventing the deterioration of his health or exacerbation of the disease, and restoring health.

Sexual Exploitation and Abuse (SEA)

The abuse or attempted abuse (including threatened physical intrusion of a sexual nature, whether by force or under unequal or coercive conditions) on an individual's vulnerability, power imbalance, or trust, to obtain sexual favours.

Applicant for international protection status

Act on Granting International Protection to Aliens1 § 3. Applicant for international protection and application for international protection (1) An applicant for international protection (hereinafter also applicant) is an alien who has submitted an application for international protection (hereinafter also application) in respect to which final decision has not been made.

PBGB Police and Border Guard Board

Refugee The 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees (the 1951 Convention), at Article 1A(2), defines a refugee as any person who ‘…owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of [their] nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail [themself] of the protection of that country; or who, not having a nationality and being outside the country of [their] former habitual residence is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to return to it’.

______________________

1 IASC GBV Guidelines for Integrating GBV Interventions in Humanitarian Action, 2015, Part 1, https://gbvguidelines.org; and UNHCR master glossary of terms | UNHCR.

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Subsidiary protection

A form of international protection granted in some countries to persons, who do not meet the Convention definition of a refugee but who face a real risk of serious harm in their country of origin or former habitual residence. This includes the death penalty or execution, torture or inhuman or degrading treatment, or a serious and individual threat to their life or person due to indiscriminate violence in situations of armed conflict.

SIB Social Insurance Board

UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, the UN Refugee Agency

Victim Support Services (VSS)

As defined in the Victim Support Act Article 15 (2), VSS are: 1. basic victim support service; 2. psychosocial support in the event of crisis; 3. women's support centre service 4. sexual violence crisis support; 5. service for victims in human trafficking; 6. restorative justice services; 7. support for abandonment of violence; 8. mental health assistance in support of recovery from trauma.

Victim/ Survivor2 As defined in the Code of Criminal Procedure, Article 37 (1), victim is an individual, or a legal person, whose legally protected interests have suffered direct harm because of a criminal offence that targeted them, or as a result of an unlawful act committed by a person incapable of forming the corresponding mens rea. In a situation where an attempt is made to commit a criminal offence, a person is a victim also if, instead of the protected interest that was targeted, harm is dealt to an interest that is subsumed by that interest. The State or another public authority is a victim only if the harm dealt to its legally protected interest gives rise to a pecuniary claim which can be pursued in criminal proceedings. A person is a victim also in a situation in which a criminal offence or an unlawful act committed by a person incapable of forming the corresponding mens rea caused the death of a person close to them and they have suffered harm as a result of the death. According to legal definition provided by Victim Support Act Article 4 (2), a victim is a person who is harmed or dies because of a crime, violence or event of crisis.

VSA Victim Support Act3

______________________

2 In this study, victims/ survivors are considered forcibly displaced and stateless individuals who have experienced gender- based violence (GBV) including sexual exploitation and assault (SEA). 3 Estonia, Victim Support Act, 14.12.2022, https://www.riigiteataja.ee/en/eli/ee/Riigikogu/act/503042023004/consolide.

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Executive summary

This report aims to assess the existing referral pathways for forcibly displaced4 and

stateless people who have experienced gender-based violence (GBV), including

sexual exploitation and abuse (SEA) in Estonia. For the sake of clarity and readability,

this report refers to the main target group as individuals who have experienced GBV,

including SEA.

The study was conducted from October 2024 to January 2025 and reflects the results

of the desk research, interviews conducted and assessment of current legislation. The

results of the study have shown that referral pathways for forcibly displaced and

stateless survivors5 of GBV are in place, and that support services are generally

accessible to refugees and individuals with temporary or subsidiary protection. At the

same time, the findings point to some challenges in how these pathways function in

practice. Limited coordination between institutions, gaps in professional capacity, and

the partial involvement of key actors can affect how support is delivered and accessed.

Although health institutions provide GBV-related services, they typically operate

independently from other institutions, resulting in fragmented support rather than as a

more cohesive system. These issues may reduce the overall effectiveness of the

referral process.

Individuals who have experienced GBV, including SEA, can seek support from the

Police and Border Guard Board (PBGB), Social Insurance Board (SIB), medical

professionals, and NGOs. These entities forward the cases to the victim support

service (VSS), managed by Estonia’s SIB. Information about contacting the police is

provided upon arrival in Estonia. Nevertheless, the background research and

interviews revealed variations in awareness of these services, availability of

information, and accessibility - particularly regarding the language in which these

services are offered. Furthermore, Estonia is using MARAC (Multi-Agency Risk

Assessment Conference) model as a framework for action to support the survivors of

GBV and SEA. MARAC involves risk identification and is using DASH (Domestic

Abuse, Stalking and Honour Based Violence) risk assessment tools and networking

to develop and implement an intervention plan. The members of the MARAC network

develop and implement an intervention plan, they are involved in case management

network meetings and share information and evaluation of the results.

In this study, representatives of 15 organizations were interviewed to get more insight

into practices involving forcibly displaced and stateless people, who are survivors of

______________________

4 In this report “forcibly displaced people” are defined according to the UNHCR terminology – these are people, forced to flee their countries due to conflict, violence, persecution, or human rights violations. This is not a legal term and used as an abbreviated, generic term to designates all people falling, or considered likely to fall, under UNHCR mandate, such as refugees, asylum-seekers, and those under temporary protection. 5 In this report, the terms victim of GBV and survivor of GBV are used interchangeably. While UNHCR and other international organisations favour the term survivor, reflecting a rights-based and empowering approach, the Estonian national context predominantly employs the term victim in legal, policy, and service delivery frameworks. To respect both contexts and ensure clarity, both terms are used with the same intended meaning.

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GBV and SEA. The study revealed that there is no discrimination based on nationality

or legal status, and every person can access support services for help. However,

providing and obtaining information in languages other than Estonian, English, or

Russian presents challenges, as translation services are required and can be limited

for less common languages in Estonia. Between October 2024 and January 2025,

interviews were also conducted with persons holding temporary protection status to

gather information about their experiences, assess the quality of services received,

and evaluate their awareness of available support services.

The main barriers to accessing services include language difficulties, cultural

differences, and survivors’ self-perception. Recognizing oneself as a survivor of

violence and seeking help from the police can be challenging. While there is general

awareness about GBV, the sensitivity of these issues, combined with cultural factors,

likely contributes to underreporting among forcibly displaced individuals. Minor

limitations of the VSS are presented in the report, along with suggestions how to

improve the services.

The visual overview of the referral pathways to the needed services of the forcibly

displaced survivors of GBV (including SEA) are also presented schematically below.

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1. Introduction

This study aims to assess the effectiveness of the existing referral pathways for

forcibly displaced (refugees, asylum-seekers) and stateless people who have

experienced GBV and SEA6 in Estonia and provide recommendations for improving

service accessibility. The study focuses on the adult (18+ years of age) forcibly

displaced and stateless people.

Effectiveness in this study means the accessibility and availability of the services

to forcibly displaced and stateless persons.

Gender-based violence, as defined by the Council of Europe, is any act of violence

based on gender identity. It broadly includes harm inflicted on individuals or groups

due to their actual or perceived sex, gender, sexual orientation, or gender identity.7

GBV includes mental, physical, and sexual violence, as well as threats, coercion, and

manipulation, often seen in intimate partner violence, child marriage, female genital

mutilation, and "honour crimes".8

UNHCR’s 2020 Policy on Gender-Based Violence defines GBV as harmful acts based

on socially ascribed gender differences, including physical, sexual, or mental harm,

threats, and coercion, occurring publicly or privately. It highlights GBV’s roots in

patriarchal power dynamics and gender discrimination, targeting women, girls, and

individuals defying gender norms. Previously referred to as "sexual and gender-based

violence" (SGBV), UNHCR now uses "gender-based violence" (GBV) to emphasize

its systemic nature.9

Sexual exploitation refers to the abuse or attempted abuse of an individual's

vulnerability, power imbalance, or trust, to obtain sexual favours.10 This may involve

offering money or other forms of social, economic, or political advantages, and

includes trafficking and prostitution.11

Sexual abuse means the actual or threatened physical intrusion of a sexual nature,

whether by force or under unequal or coercive conditions such as sexual slavery,

pornography, child abuse and sexual assault.12

The prevalence of GBV among females tends to increase during forced

______________________

6 Later throughout the report, for better readability only the term GBV is used, but by it the authors mean GBV, including SEA. 7 Council of Europe, What is gender-based violence?, https://www.coe.int/en/web/gender-matters/what-is-gender-based- violence. 8 UNHCR, Gender-based violence, https://www.unhcr.org/what-we-do/protect-human-rights/protection/gender-based-violence. 9 UNHCR, UNHCR master glossary of terms, https://www.unhcr.org/glossary, see also UNHCR Policy on the Prevention of, Risk Mitigation and Response to GBV, 02 October 2020, https://www.unhcr.org/media/unhcr-policy-prevention-risk-mitigation- and-response-gender-based-violence-2020. 10 UNHCR, What is sexual exploitation, abuse and harassment?, https://www.unhcr.org/asia/what-we-do/how-we-work/tackling- sexual-exploitation-abuse-and-harassment/what-sexual-exploitation. 11 Ibid. 12 Ibid.

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displacements.13 Although women face a higher risk of GBV, there is limited data on

the overall number of people affected by these forms of violence in the EU.14

Forcibly displaced individuals as well as stateless people also face higher risks of GBV

in a homogenic relationship.15 This research area has been overlooked, largely due to

reluctance to report incidents. The most common reasons among forcibly displaced

and stateless individuals who have experienced GBV that hinder them from reporting

such cases are the forcible displacement background and economic situation;

personal beliefs and fears (e.g., fear to be isolated of family and/or community, fear of

not being believed, fear of discrimination, etc.); little knowledge of rights, support

services, and language skills; limited access to support services and lack of legal

protection, as well as mistrust towards state authorities.16

The large-scale arrival of refugees from the Middle East, Ukraine, and other regions

has placed governments under pressure to meet the needs of forcibly displaced

people. Nordic countries have established social insurance systems, protective legal

measures, and support services for forcibly displaced and stateless individuals who

have experienced GBV. Estonia has adopted some practices from Nordic countries

when developing similar systems, but still lacks sufficient experience in working

effectively with individuals who have diverse cultural backgrounds, experiences of

forced displacement, and varying language skills.

Therefore, the current study aims to understand how effective the existing referral

pathways are and what services are needed to ensure the rights of forcibly displaced

and stateless people who have experienced GBV in Estonia.

______________________

13 S. R. Fatema, et.al. (2019), Women's health-related vulnerabilities in natural disasters: a systematic review protocol, BMJ Open, 9 (12):e 032079. Doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2019-032079. 14 A. Wells jt. (2019), Gender-based violence against refugee & asylum-seeking women - a training tool. Training Manual CCM- GBV project. SOLWODI Deutschland e.V. https://www.giraffaonlus.it/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/training-manual-CCM- GBV_EN-r.pdf (Accessed 20 November 2024). 15 P. Laskey jt. (2019). A systematic literature review of intimate partner violence victimization: An inclusive review across gender and sexuality. Aggression and Violent Behaviour, 47, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2019.02.014. 16 Ibid.

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2. Overview of GBV and SEA in Estonia

To analyse the practical obstacles to access the VSS in Estonia, it is important to

highlight the challenges of working with individuals who have experienced SEA

or GBV. The state has developed various programmes, referral pathways, and

legislative amendments to support GBV survivors.

The Ministry of Justice of Estonia has adopted a strategy for prevention of GBV and

human trafficking and exploitation as the part of the Violence Prevention Agreement

2021-2025.17 In 2024, the Ministry of Justice published an analysis of the compliance

of Sexual Autonomy-Related Offences with the Council of Europe Convention on

Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence (the

Istanbul Convention).18 The studies highlight that the offenses against sexual self-

determination, specifically §§ 141, 141¹, and 143 of the Penal Code, do not fully

comply with Article 36 of the Istanbul Convention (the concept of the absence of

voluntary consent for all sexual activities).19 This essentially also creates confusion

about the concept of a victim of sexual exploitation.

In March 2024, the research centre Praxis released findings from the study Pretrial

Investigation of Sexual Violence.20 The study highlights improvements in Estonia's

pre-trial procedures for sexual violence, emphasizing an increased survivor-centred

approach and improved awareness and attitudes among those conducting

investigations. However, the study identifies several remaining obstacles that may

further victimize survivors of sexual violence, erode trust in the legal system, and

impede the prosecution of perpetrators. The study also explores the potential

introduction of a consent-based definition in determining sexual violence and rape.

There is an ongoing political and institutional discussion on this issue.21

Stateless and forcibly displaced people in Estonia can access VSS services in the

same manner as Estonian citizens.

In 2023, a total of 7,012 violence cases were registered in Estonia, including 3,186

cases of domestic violence.22 Domestic violence crimes accounted for 45 per cent of

all registered violent crimes.23 In 2023, physical abuse accounted for 87 per cent of

______________________

17 Ministry of Justice of the Republic of Estonia, the 2021-2025 Violence Prevention Agreement, www.just.ee/kuritegevus-ja- selle-ennetus/vagivallaennetuse-kokkulepe. 18Ministry of Justice, On the conformity of the elements of offences against sexual self-determination with the Istanbul Convention of the Council of Europe Analysis, Analüüs seksuaalse enesemääramise vastaste süütegude koosseisude vastavusest EN Istanbuli konventsioonile.pdf. 19 Supra note 12 and 13. 20 Mõttekoda Praxis, Seksuaalvägivalla kohtueelne uurimine, www.praxis.ee/uploads/2024/03/Seksuaalvagivalla-kohtueelne- uurimine.pdf. 21 Feministeerium, Consent Act FAQ, 26 March 2024, https://feministeerium.ee/nousolekuseaduse-kkk/; Gortfelder B., Nõusolekuseadus tuleb: justiitisministeerium saatis väljatöötamiskavatsuse kooskõlastusringile, Delfi 18.12.2024, www.delfi.ee/artikkel/120344621/nousolekuseadus-tuleb-justiitsministeerium-saatis-valjatootamiskavatsuse-kooskolastusringile. 22 Justiitsministeerium, (2023), Kuritegevus Eestis 2023. Perevägivald ja ahistamine. In English: The Ministry of Justice, (2023), The Crime in Estonia 2023. Domestic violence and harassment, https://www.justdigi.ee/kuritegevus2023/perevagivald-ja- ahistamine/. 23 Ministry of Justice, Crime in Estonia 2023, https://www.justdigi.ee/kuritegevus2023/perevagivald-ja-ahistamine/.

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reported cases, followed by threats at 6 per cent, sexual crimes at 5 per cent, and

other violent crimes at 2 per cent. Since 2021, the share of physical abuse has

increased from 83 per cent to 87 per cent. Threatening decreased from 10 per cent in

2021 to 6 per cent in 2023. Sexual crimes stayed at the same level of 5 per cent and

other violent crimes at 2 per cent in all years (2021-2023).24 See Figure 1.

Source: Justiitsministeerium. (2023). Kuritegevus Eestis 2023. Perevägivald ja ahistamine.

Nevertheless, a large share of individuals who have experienced GBV,25 in Estonia,

do not reach out to the police, victim support, or healthcare systems. This

prevents them from receiving the necessary support for recovering from trauma.26 The

violence prevention agreement (in Estonian “Vägivallaennetuse kokkulepe”)

emphasizes the need for better case-based oversight and the availability of

gender-based data to ensure the protection of individuals who have experienced

GBV, and to assess both the adequacy of existing services and the need for additional

services.

Previous studies have mainly focused on the prevalence of GBV in Estonia,27 as well

as on understanding the awareness and attitudes of individuals who have experienced

GBV, domestic violence, human trafficking, labour exploitation, or involvement in

prostitution. These studies have also assessed the level of awareness regarding

VSS.28 Similarly, other studies have focused on examining access to justice of

______________________

24 Ibid. 25 64 per cent of women have faced violence at home, see more in: Vägivallateenuste kokkulepe 2021-2025, p.7. https://www.kriminaalpoliitika.ee/sites/krimipoliitika/files/elfinder/dokumendid/vagivallaennetuse_kokkulepe_2021-2025.pdf. 26 Ibid., p.15. 27 M. Puniste & T. Taal. (2022). ‘Care4 Trauma: Improving GBV Victims Support Services and Access to Justice through Trauma-Informed Care.’ State-of-the-Art Assessment. Country Report: Estonia. Women’s Support and Information Centre NPO. Retrieved from: https://naistetugi.ee/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/Care4Trauma_CountryReportEstonia_ENG.pdf. 28 Sotsiaalkindlustusamet (2024), Eesti elanikkonna teadlikkuse uuring soopõhise vägivalla ja inimkaubanduse valdkonnas, in English: The Social Insurance Board (2024), ‘Study on Public Awareness on Gender-Based Violence and Human Trafficking in Estonia,’ https://www.sotsiaalkindlustusamet.ee/sites/default/files/documents/2024- 04/Eesti%20elanikkonna%20teadlikkuse%20uuring%20soop%C3%B5hise%20v%C3%A4givalla%20ja%20inimkaubanduse%2 0valdkonnas.pdf.

83%

10% 5%

2%

87%

7% 4% 2%

87%

6% 5% 2%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Physical abuse Threatening Sexual crimes Other violent crimes

Figure 1. Distribution of violent crimes related to domestic violence by type of crime

2021 2022 2023

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individuals who have experienced GBV, as well as the barriers these individuals have

encountered,29 and how different organizations (e.g., police, health institutions, VSS,

and government organizations) cooperate to identify and assess the needs of those

individuals and refer to the appropriate services.30 Lastly, the scope of previous

research was to map the availability of online counselling and e-courses for individuals

who experienced GBV.31

In 2023, 30 individuals in Estonia experienced sexual exploitation with signs of

human trafficking. These individuals were from Ukraine (14), Venezuela (4), Brazil (4),

Colombia (2), Russia (2), Thailand (2), the Dominican Republic (1), and Kazakhstan

(1).32 A total of 289 potential survivors received counselling through the human

trafficking helpline.

Psychological violence has also been reported. Half of the calls to the victim support

crisis hotline33 were related to psychological violence that affected the mental health

of the survivors. As of 2023, a total of 6,723 calls were received. Seventy per cent of

the calls were made in Estonian, 23 per cent in Russian, and 5 per cent (348 calls) in

the Ukrainian language. Since the victim support crisis hotline provides information

only in three languages (Estonian, Russian, and English), individuals who do not

speak these languages face difficulties accessing the services adequately.

Additionally, online counselling services were provided to 1,317 individuals, who

primarily sought support for anxiety, depression, and relationship difficulties.34

The results of these studies have shown that most of the overall population in

Estonia (approximately 82 per cent) is familiar with at least one VSS. Nevertheless,

awareness appears to be lower among residents of other nationalities, with around 71

per cent of non-Estonian residents reporting familiarity with at least one

service.35

The services with the highest levels of recognition include the Women’s Support

Centres (approximately 61 per cent) and the Victim Support Crisis Hotline

(approximately 59 per cent). Awareness of other services is comparatively lower.

Around one third of the population (approximately 35 per cent) is aware of sexual

violence crisis centres, while a quarter of respondents are familiar with services such

as victim support workers (27 per cent), online mental health counselling (26 per cent),

______________________

29 M. Puniste & T. Taal (2022), The study analysed national, regional, and local legislation, policies, guidelines, and victim studies related to trauma-informed care. 30 M. Vollmer & A. Markina (2017), Developing Directive-Compatible Practices for the Identification, Assessment, and Referral of Victims. National Report: Estonia, https://www.ibs.ee/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/VICT-report-ESTONIA-3.pdf. 31 K. Abel jt (2023), Sotsiaalkindlustusameti Aastaraamat (2023), in English: K. Abel et al (2023), Social Insurance Board Yearbook (2023), https://www.sotsiaalkindlustusamet.ee/sites/default/files/documents/2024-04/SKA_aastaraamat_2023.pdf, p. 23. 32 Ibid., pp. 23-24. 33 The victim support crisis Hotline respond in three languages: Estonian, Russian and English. 34 Ibid., p. 23. 35 K. Abel jt. (2023), Sotsiaalkindlustusameti Aastaraamat (2023), in English: K. Abel et al (2023), Social Insurance Board Yearbook (2023), https://www.sotsiaalkindlustusamet.ee/sites/default/files/documents/2024-04/SKA_aastaraamat_2023.pdf p.23.

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and emotional support and spiritual care hotlines (25 per cent). Approximately 19 per

cent of the population is aware of mental health services focused on trauma recovery.

Only few individuals (around 10 per cent) are familiar with psychosocial support

services, victim support for human trafficking survivors, and services supporting the

cessation of violence. The restorative justice service36 is known to only 6 per cent of

the population. See Figure 2.

Source: K. Abel, et.al. (2023). Sotsiaalkindlustusameti Aastaraamat (2023)

Furthermore, as presented in Figure 3, more than half of the population (58 per cent)

believe there are challenges in ensuring the human rights of individuals who have

suffered domestic violence. While more than half (over 50 per cent) view domestic

violence as a serious issue and a violation of human rights, approximately one in

three Estonians (41 per cent of men and 19 per cent of women) feel that the issue

is exaggerated and that such incidents do not occur within their social circles or local

communities. A significant portion of the population (68 per cent) expresses support

______________________

36 ‘Restorative justice’ means any process whereby the victim and the perpetrator are enabled, if they freely consent, to participate actively in the resolution of matters arising from the criminal offence through the help of an impartial third party. Directive 2012/29/EU OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 25 October 2012 establishing minimum standards on the rights, support and protection of victims of crime, and replacing Council Framework Decision 2001/220/JHA art 2.1.d https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX%3A32012L0029.

61%

59%

35%

27%

26%

25%

19%

10%

10%

10%

6%

Women's Support Centre

Victim Support Crisis Hotline

Sexual Violence Crisis Centres

Victim Support Workers

Online Mental Health Councelling

Emotional Support and Spiritual Care Hotlines

Mental Health Services (Trauma Recovery)

Psychosocial Support Services

Victim Support for Survivors of Human Trafficking

Services Supporting Cessation of Violence

Restorative Justice Service

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70%

Figure 2. Estonian population awareness of the provided victim support services

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for the implementation of a specific domestic violence law, which they believe would

enhance the effectiveness of addressing domestic violence in Estonia.37

Source: I. Pettai (2022). Domestic and Gender-Based Violence in Estonia.

In 2024, the Socio-Economic Insights Survey (SEIS) was conducted by UNHCR in

Estonia.38 According to the survey, respondents are most familiar with safety and

security services, such as the police and safe shelters (70 per cent), and health

services (66 per cent) as the primary ways to access GBV support. Fewer respondents

would recommend psychosocial services (41 per cent), dedicated helplines (37 per

cent), or legal assistance (30 per cent) to someone from their community who has

experienced GBV. Additionally, men are more likely than women to lack awareness of

available GBV services (40 per cent vs. 28 per cent).39

Lastly, the previous studies have shown that referral mechanism is effective only

between the PBGB as well as SIB and VSS. Health institutions provide services to

individuals who have experienced GBV, but they are not part of the support network,

resulting in a lack of a holistic approach.40 The PBGB does not have guidelines for

assessing the needs of individuals who have experienced GBV. The needs of those

people are self-assessed and primarily based on participants' personal knowledge and

______________________

37 I. Pettai (2022), Domestic and Gender-Based Violence in Estonia. National Survey Results. Estonian Open Society Institute. Retrieved from: https://media.voog.com/0000/0035/2397/files/Pere- %20ja%20naistevastane%20v%C3%A4givald%20Eestis%20%20%202020%20aasta%20uuringu%20%20tulemused.pdf. 38 UNHCR, 2024 Estonia Socio-Economic Insights Survey, https://microdata.unhcr.org/index.php/catalog/1222/. 39 Ibid., p. 17. In that survey. 40 Supra note 23, M. Vollmer & A. Markina (2017).

68%

58%

41%

19%

Both men and women support implementation of a specific domestic violence law to enhance the

effectiveness of addressing domestic violence in Estonia

Both men and women view domestic violence as a violation of human rights

Men think that issue is exaggerated and that such incidents do not occur within their social circles or

local communities

Women think that issue is exaggerated and that such incidents do not occur within their social

circles or local communities

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80%

Figure 3. Views on incidents of domestic violence among men and women in Estonia

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subjective judgment. A formal identification process is only applied to determine if an

individual who has experienced GBV, belongs to a specific group, such as individuals

used for human trafficking of children who have been sexually abused.41

In December 2023, new agreements came into effect with women’s support centres

established in all counties of Estonia. These centres offer counselling and secure

temporary accommodation to women who have experienced violence. Women

Support Centres are central service providers at the local level.

In 2023, nearly 2,000 women sought assistance from Women’s Support Centres, with

secure accommodation provided to 160 women and 173 children. Additionally,

trauma-focused mental health support was offered through 67 partner organizations,

ensuring comprehensive care for those in need. Survivors of sexual violence can seek

help from sexual violence crisis centres located in Tallinn, Pärnu, Tartu, and Kohtla-

Järve. During the same year, three support groups for survivors of sexual violence

were active, holding a total of 170 sessions with 36 participants. Crisis centres

provided assistance to 209 individuals, including nine men, offering essential support

to those in need.

In 2023, the Human Trafficking Helpline received 431 calls. Assistance was provided

to 289 potential survivors and 142 officials, including employees of the PBGB, the

Labour Inspectorate, and local governments involved in trafficking prevention.

Additionally, 113 in-person consultations were conducted. Among the potential

survivors, 89 per cent were citizens of 20 different countries.42

______________________

41 Ibid. These individuals are entitled to additional support and state-funded services. 42 K. Abel jt. (2023), Sotsiaalkindlustusameti Aastaraamat (2023). In English: K. Abel et al. (2023), Social Insurance Board Yearbook (2023), p.24. Retrieved from: https://www.sotsiaalkindlustusamet.ee/sites/default/files/documents/2024- 04/SKA_aastaraamat_2023.pdf.

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3. Methodology of the study

This report uses an exploratory case study as its main research approach to examine

the effectiveness of referral pathways for individuals who have experienced GBV when

accessing VSS in Estonia. The study employs four main methods:

1. exploratory desk research;

2. legal and policy analysis;

3. interviews and consultations with relevant stakeholders;

4. individual interviews with forcibly displaced and stateless persons, including

GBV survivors.

The combination of these methods ensures comprehensive data collection, and

triangulation has been applied to enhance understanding of the research topic.

3.1 Phases of the Research and Research Questions

This research is conducted in three phases.

The first phase of the study involved a literature review and analysis of relevant

sources, including existing legal and policy documents. The systematic literature

review provided an overview of previous studies on the effectiveness of state-funded

VSS and levels of satisfaction with their quality. It also included an analysis of

published quantitative data regarding individuals who have experienced GBV, the

services accessible to them, and referral pathways to other institutions in Estonia.

Reviewing and analysing the available literature helps objectively evaluate existing

knowledge and supports the generalization of research findings.43 It also allows for the

examination of international good practices. An analysis of the existing legal

framework helps identify gaps in legislation that require attention.

Literature and document analysis

Desk research was carried out by reviewing relevant policy documents, published

reports, scholarly analyses, and academic literature. The literature review included

searches of academic databases in English such as Google Scholar, HeinOnline,

Juridica, Scopus, and Web of Science, along with specialized databases for guidelines

and case studies like EUR-Lex, Riigikohus, and Riigi Teataja. The desk research

utilized specific search terms derived from related publications, including academic

literature, policy documents, and industry reports concerning the assessment,

development, and implementation of protective and preventive measures for GBV

within Estonian and European social insurance systems. The results were selected

based on the following criteria: (i) relevance to the study's objectives, (ii) recency, and

______________________

43 H. Snyder. (2019). Literature Review as a Research Methodology: An Overview and Guidelines. Journal of Business Research, 104: 333-339. Doi: 10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.07.039; A. Delios, jt. (2022). Examining the Generalizability of Research Findings from Archival Data. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 119(30): e2120377119. Doi: 10.1073/pnas.2120377119.

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(iii) source reliability. Findings from the desk research were further verified through

stakeholder consultations and online face-to-face interviews with individuals holding

temporary residence status in Estonia, including those who have experienced GBV.

The study identifies available VSS for refugees and asylum-seekers who have

experienced GBV, covering health, mental health and psychological support, safety

and security, and justice services.

Legal and policy analysis

To achieve the aims of the research, an overview of the existing legislation regulating

prevention of and response to GBV in Estonia, is provided. The legal and policy

analysis involved assessing the rules within the social insurance system, as well as

protective measures aimed at forcibly displaced and stateless individuals who have

experienced GBV. It also examined the availability and accessibility of VSS, including

social and healthcare services, and explored measures designed to prevent

victimization, fraud, stigma, and discrimination. The analysis of legislative acts,

regulations, and case studies used methods of legal interpretation to clarify the

purpose behind government rules and policies. Additionally, the analysis identified

legal and practical barriers faced by refugees and asylum-seekers who have

experienced GBV.

The second phase of this study includes interviews and discussions with

stakeholders from various institutions working with individuals who have experienced

GBV (See Annex II), and with the forcibly displaced people (temporary protection

holders) who live in Estonia.

The interviews were conducted to better understand the needs of forcibly displaced

people who have experienced GBV (e.g., what is their satisfaction with the services

and referral pathway to access services) as well as the needs of service providers and

those who refer to services. The interviews provided essential insights for evaluating

the effectiveness of existing services. Qualitative analysis of the interview data offered

an in-depth understanding of the research topic, as interviewees were able to respond

freely and express themselves in their own words.44 Interview data were transcribed

and systematically analysed according to key thematic areas.

The interviews helped identify the accessibility of relevant support services and

existing referral pathways for directing individuals who have experienced GBV towards

appropriate care. They also clarified the roles of various institutions and actors

involved, including social support services, healthcare providers, law enforcement

agencies, and NGOs.

Interviews and consultations with service providers and stakeholders

Interviews with service providers and stakeholders (see Annex 1) from municipalities,

______________________

44 I. Bertrand ja P. Hughes (2017), Media Research Methods: Audiences, Institutions, Texts. Springer.

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state agencies NGOs, medical facilities, centres for refugees and asylum-seekers,

women's shelters, and international organizations were conducted online between 14

and 22 November 2024. Discussions with stakeholders (n=15), each lasting

approximately 60 to 90 minutes, provided insights into referral patterns and helped

identify gaps in support pathways for refugees, forcibly displaced individuals, and

stateless persons who have experienced GBV in Estonia.

Individual interviews with forcibly displaced and stateless individuals, experienced

GBV including SEA

Individual interviews with forcibly displaced persons (n=5), all of whom held temporary

protection status, were planned to be conducted online between 2 and 17 January

2025. The purpose of these interviews was to assess their awareness and

experiences regarding services available to GBV survivors in Estonia. The personal

interviews provided insights into how referral pathways were structured and perceived

by individuals who had experienced GBV, as well as the accessibility and quality of

VSS. The quality of VSS was assessed using the Client Satisfaction Questionnaire

(CSQ-8) developed by Larsen et al. (1979). Additionally, the efficiency, effectiveness,

and impact of VSS on GBV survivors, along with the effectiveness of referral pathways

to relevant institutions, were evaluated according to OECD evaluation criteria.45

In the third phase, the effectiveness of identified referral pathways was assessed by

examining the strength of cooperation among institutions, service accessibility, and

timeliness of care delivery. Based on this assessment, recommendations for legal and

policy actions were developed to address identified gaps and enhance referral

pathways for forcibly displaced and stateless individuals who have experienced GBV.

To better understand obstacles and opportunities related to accessing services, the

coordination and roles of different institutions were described by answering the

following questions:

Legal and Regulatory Framework

● Does Estonian legislation regulate the prevention and response to violence,

including GBV and SEA?

● What changes in domestic legislation or social welfare organizations are

needed to ensure equal access to VSS for forcibly displaced people?

Available Services and Referral Mechanisms

● What VSS are available (in Estonia) for forcibly displaced and stateless persons

who experienced GBV?

______________________

45 OECD, (2021) Applying Evaluation Criteria Thoughtfully, OECD Publishing, Paris. Doi: 10.1787/543e84ed-en, https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/applying-evaluation-criteria-thoughtfully_543e84ed-en.html.

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● What referral mechanisms exist and have been implemented to guide

individuals who have experienced GBV to these services (i.e., VSS), and are

they comprehensive, effective, timely, and accessible?

● How are individuals who have experienced GBV informed about relevant social

support services, and what are the primary sources of information for forcibly

displaced people?

Access and Obstacles

● What legal, practical, as well as organizational and administrative barriers do

individuals who have experienced GBV, face in accessing VSS in a timely and

adequate manner?

Institutional Roles and Coordination

● What roles do various institutions and actors (e.g., social support services,

healthcare, law enforcement, NGOs) play in providing support for individuals

who have experienced GBV?

● How is the coordination between these institutions organized to ensure that

individuals who have experienced GBV receive comprehensive and effective

support?

Survivor Satisfaction and Service Quality

● Are forcibly displaced people, who have experienced GBV, satisfied with the

accessibility and quality of the services provided?

● If not, what were the primary reasons for limited or inadequate support?

Recommendations for improvement

● What improvements are needed in the current situation (e.g., in legislation,

organization of the social welfare, or the development of person-centred

services) to provide refugees and asylum-seekers with equal opportunities for

assistance to access VSS?

Limitations of the current study

This study has several limitations that should be considered when interpreting its

findings. First, the research focused exclusively on adult forcibly displaced and

stateless individuals and did not include the perspectives of children or other

persons with specific needs. Second, the qualitative interview sample was

relatively small and consisted only of Ukrainian refugees holding temporary

protection status, which may limit the broader applicability of the findings to other

groups.

The study’s primary focus was on GBV, but forms such as psychological, emotional,

and economic violence, as well as less severe forms of domestic violence, were only

addressed to a limited extent. This reflects both the specific focus of the study and the

limited availability of relevant research and data in the Estonian context. Additionally,

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while the study explored referral pathways and access to services, less attention was

paid to the specific legal procedures available to asylum-seekers in GBV-related

cases, such as how and when legal aid can be accessed in family-related situations.

These limitations highlight the need for further research on the experiences of

other groups within the forcibly displaced population, especially asylum-seekers, and

on the full spectrum of GBV-related cases and support mechanisms.

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4. Legal and policy measures for the protection

of survivors of GBV and SEA in Estonia

4.1 An overview of existing legislation

This chapter provides an overview of the main legal acts that regulate the responses

to violence in Estonia.

There is an EU wide obligation of Member States to support survivors. According to

the Victims’ Directive,46 Member States must ensure that referrals take place at the

survivor’s first point of contact, typically through the police or victim support

organizations. Timely and efficient referral of survivors to appropriate support services

is essential. In Estonia, the police generally serve as the initial contact point. Referral

mechanisms connect the police with VSS, and generic VSS then guide survivors to

additional, specialized support providers.

Article 12 of the Constitution of Estonia47 states that everyone is equal under the law.

No one should be discriminated against based on ethnicity, race, colour, sex,

language, origin, religion, political or other views, property, social status or other

grounds.

Estonia has ratified Istanbul Convention48 and the new Victim Support Act49 entered

into force on 1 April 2023. Furthermore, Estonia is bound by the EU Directive

2024/1385 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 May 2024 on

Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence.50

Moreover, the Penal Code §§ 141, 1411, and 143 regulate criminal offences.51

According to §141 of the Penal Code, rape is defined as sexual intercourse with a

person against their will, either by using force or by exploiting a situation in which the

person is unable to resist or comprehend the situation. This offense is punishable by

imprisonment from one to six years.52 According to §143 of the Penal Code, sexual

intercourse or any other sexual act performed against a person's will by exploiting the

survivor’s dependency on the perpetrator - but without using force or taking advantage

of a situation where the survivor is unable to resist or understand the situation as

specified in §1411- is punishable by up to three years' imprisonment.

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46 Directive 2024/1385 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 May 2024 on Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence. 47 Eesti Vabariigi põhiseadus, RT I, 15.05.2015, 2, https://www.riigiteataja.ee/akt/115052015002. 48 Naistevastase vägivalla ja perevägivalla ennetamise ja tõkestamise Euroopa Nõukogu konventsiooni ratifitseerimise seadus, RT II, 26.09.2017, https://www.riigiteataja.ee/akt/226092017001. 49 Victim Support Act1, RT I, 06.01.2023, 1, Adopted 14.12.2022. 50 OJ L, 24.5.2024. 51 RT I, 04.07.2024, 25. 52 §1411 of Penal Code.

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4.2 Legal definition of a victim

Estonian legislation includes two definitions of the term ‘victim’. The Victim Support

Act of 2023 replaced previous legislation that had been in effect for nearly two

decades. It introduced several new services, clearer guidelines for communication,

updated requirements for victim support providers, established principles for the

treatment of victims, and simplified the application process for crime victim

compensation.53 Victim Support Act defines a victim as “a person who is harmed or

dies as a result of a crime, violence or event of crisis”.54

The act specifies eligibility criteria for victim support and provides a somewhat broad

definition of the term 'victim'. Nevertheless, this definition aligns with the primary

objective of the Directive, emphasizing that victims should have access to support

services regardless of the severity of the crime or whether they have reported it.

A victim of trafficking in human beings is defined as "a person who has been identified

as a victim in criminal proceedings initiated based on the elements of a crime outlined

in § 133–1333, 138–140 or 175 of the Penal Code or a person who would be

considered a victim in criminal proceedings initiated based on elements of a similar

crime defined in the penal code of another country”.55

The Victim Support Act also defines a victim of violence against women as “a woman

who has suffered physical, sexual, psychological, or economic harm or distress in

public or private life as a result of domestic violence, GBV, or threats thereof, including

coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty”.56

According to the Victims Support Act, “a victim of domestic violence is a person who

has experienced acts of physical, sexual, psychological or economic violence in a

family or cohabitation or by a former or current spouse or partner, regardless of

whether the perpetrator of the act of violence lives or has lived in the same place of

residence as the victim”.57 A victim of sexual violence is defined as "a person subjected

to sexual acts without their consent, forced to engage in sexual acts with a third party,

or otherwise sexually abused”.58 According to § 4 (1) of the Victim Support Act, victim

support refers to a system comprising state-organized VSS and compensation

provided to victims of crime.

______________________

53 SKA Aastaraamat 2023, p 24. 54 §4 (2) Victims Support Act. 55 §4 (3) VSA. 56 §4 (4) VSA. 57 §4 (5) VSA. 58 §4 (6) VSA.

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4.3 Victims in criminal procedures

In Estonia, criminal proceedings involve courts, prosecutors' offices, and investigative

bodies like the PBGB and Internal Security Service. Under §193 of the Code of

Criminal Procedure, the Prosecutor's Office may initiate proceedings if there is reason

and evidence of a criminal offense. If initiated by the police, the Prosecutor’s Office

must be informed immediately. Proceedings begin based on a report or information

indicating a criminal offence and are justified by identifying criminal elements.

Pre-trial investigations are conducted by the PBGB or the Internal Security Service,

directed by the Prosecutor's Office to ensure legality and efficiency. After the

investigation, the prosecutor either files a bill of indictment in court or terminates the

case, with conciliation proceedings as a possible outcome. The trial phase involves

the victim, suspect or accused, their counsel, civil defendant, and third parties.59 The

parties to a court proceeding have all the rights of participants in the proceedings

provided for in the Code of Criminal Procedure (Kriminaalmenetluse seadustik, §17

(2)). Under the Code of Criminal Procedure, all provisions for witnesses also apply to

victims. A person becomes a victim in proceedings either through procedural acts or

by a ruling of the court. Victims can be involved at any stage of the process and in all

court instances until the conclusion of appeal proceedings.

Article 195 of the Code of Criminal Procedure ensures victims' rights when reporting

a crime. Complaints can be submitted orally or in writing to an investigative body or

prosecutor’s office. Oral reports made onsite are recorded, with a copy provided to the

complainant. Reports via phone are either written down or audio recorded. If the

complainant is the victim, authorities must confirm receipt within 20 days.

If proceedings are not initiated, the reporting individual must be notified within 10 days.

These provisions align with Article 5 of the Directive, ensuring victims can report

crimes through various means and receive written confirmation or acknowledgment.60

4.4 Right to linguistic assistance, interpretation and translation

The Code of Criminal Procedure also guarantees the victim's right to get linguistic

assistance. The official language of criminal proceedings in Estonia is Estonian.

However, the Code of Criminal Procedure allows to conduct proceedings in another

language if the body conducting criminal proceedings, participants in the proceeding

and parties to the court proceeding consent to it and if the body, participants and

parties are proficient in such language. If doubts arise regarding a victim’s proficiency

in Estonian, the authority conducting the proceedings will determine their language

proficiency. If the victim does not speak Estonian sufficiently, an interpreter or

______________________

59 Code of Criminal Procedure §17 (1), RT I 2003, 27, 166. 60 Art 5, Directive 2024/1385 OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 14 May 2024 on combating violence against women and domestic violence.

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translator will be provided. According to the Code of Criminal Procedure, victims have

the right to request translations of essential documents - such as decisions on the

termination of cases or court judgments - into their native language or another

language they understand, within ten days. Victims may also request translations of

other documents crucial to protecting their procedural rights. If the authority

responsible for the proceedings determines that translating such additional documents

is not justified, it must issue a formal ruling on the refusal.61 Additionally, individuals

who access VSS are entitled to free translation services for up to two years.

4.5 Assessment of individual protection needs

The Code of Criminal Procedure requires authorities conducting proceedings to

evaluate whether a victim needs special treatment and protection. This assessment

considers factors such as the victim's individual characteristics, the severity and nature

of the offense, the profile of the suspect, the circumstances of the crime, and the harm

caused. Minors are presumed to require special protection. Based on the outcome of

this assessment, specific measures are determined to ensure the victim’s safety, such

as providing adapted premises, involving specialists trained in victim care, or

maintaining consistent personnel throughout the proceedings.

The explanatory note accompanying the draft law transposing the Victims' Directive

emphasizes that while no formal procedure for assessing victims' needs currently

exists, authorities like the police or prosecutor's office are still responsible for

evaluating each victim’s needs to guarantee appropriate support. Additionally, the

explanatory note stresses that further training and clear guidelines are necessary to

adequately address victims’ specific needs within criminal procedures.62

The explanatory note also recognizes that the concept of assessment is needed to be

created. Among others, police officers, prosecutors and judges shall consider,

whether:

● The victim is a minor;

● The offence is a high-risk crime such as sexual offence, serious violent crime,

domestic violence, human trafficking, organized crime, hate crime;

● The personality or situation of a person involves high-risk factors such as

threats to the victim, high age, mental/physical special needs, language, ability

to express his or her will;

● In case of domestic violence to assess whether medical assistance is needed

because of injuries, whether act of violence is repeated, whether there are

children in the family, whether the victim is pregnant;

● Whether a firearm was used or there is access to firearms;

● Whether the victim has suicidal thoughts;

● Whether the perpetrator was previously violent;

______________________

61 Code of Criminal Procedure §10, RT I 2003, 27, 166. 62 Ohvriabi seaduse eelnõu seletuskiri.

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● Whether there was a violation of a restraining order;

● Whether the victim or a perpetrator has an addiction risk.63

4.6 Right to be informed

According to §6 of the Victim Support Act, information about available VSS must be

accessible through the SIB, local authorities, police, rescue services, healthcare

institutions, social welfare services, educational institutions, youth work agencies,

prosecutor’s offices, courts, and other relevant agencies, including on their websites.

Additionally, officials involved in criminal proceedings are obligated to forward the

victim’s information promptly to SIB to facilitate timely access to support services.64 At

the webpage of SIB the information about the support to victims is available in

Estonian, Russian, and English only.

The Code of Criminal Procedure ensures the victim's rights to be informed about the

custody of a suspect and to request notification of their release if there is potential

danger.65 The victim may also choose one person to accompany them during any

procedural acts unless the authority conducting the proceedings has a justified reason

to refuse this request.

4.7 Rights to legal representation

A victim, civil defendant, or third party who is a natural person may participate in

criminal proceedings either personally or through a representative. Choosing to

participate personally does not affect their right to be represented by someone else.

Victims are entitled to state legal aid in criminal proceedings under the conditions

and procedures specified in the State Legal Aid Act. If a court determines that the

victim's essential interests might not be adequately protected without legal

representation, the court may, on its own initiative, grant state legal aid in accordance

with §41 of the State Legal Aid Act.66

4.8 Right to access victim support services

Victim support services (VSS) are provided on the principle of regionality and shall

be available in every county of Estonia.67 The law states that information

concerning the possibilities of using the VSS shall be available at local government,

police, rescue centre, health care, social welfare and other relevant authorities and

their websites. Victim Support Act 68 §15 regulates the purpose and content of VSS.

The purpose of VSS is to ensure social, psychological, and emotional support

______________________

63 Ministry of Justice (Justiitsministeerium), ‘Seletuskiri kriminaalmenetluse seadustiku muutmise ja sellega seonduvalt teiste seaduste muutmise seaduse eelnõu, millega laiendatakse kannatanute õigusi kriminaalmenetluses, juurde’. 64 §7 of the Victims Support Act . 65 §133 Code of Criminal Procedure. 66 State Legal Aid Act - https://www.riigiteataja.ee/en/eli/525082015004/consolide. 67 https://sotsiaalkindlustusamet.ee/ohvriabi#kontakt, (The webpage with specific contact names is available only in Estonian), 06.01.2024. 68 RT I, 06.01.2023, 1.

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(hereinafter psychosocial support) to persons who have been harmed due to a crime,

violence or event of crisis to contribute to the preservation or restoration of their sense

of security and ability to cope and to prevention of further damage.

According to Victim Support act §15 (2) VSS are:

● basic VSS;

● psychosocial support in the event of crisis;

● women's support centre service (primary psychological crisis support,

counselling, legal advice, safe temporary accommodation);

● sexual violence crisis support;

● service for victims in human trafficking;

● restorative justice services;

● support for abandonment of violence;

● mental health assistance in support of recovery from trauma;

● assistance in communicating with state and local authorities and relevant

natural and legal persons.69

The Code of Criminal Procedure (§8) requires investigative bodies and courts to

inform victims of their right to contact victim support officials, access support

services, and receive state compensation for violent crime victims. They must also

explain safety measures available under the Code. If the victim does not speak

Estonian, translation must be provided.

Under §15(3), SIB may delegate the provision of certain VSS, fully or partially, to

individuals, organizations, or local authorities through administrative contracts.70 Local

government social workers can also serve as the initial contact point for accessing

support services, depending on where an individual first seeks assistance.

The Victim Support Act (§16) outlines specific provisions for victims of human

trafficking and terrorist offenses committed in Estonia. These victims are entitled to

support services regardless of their legal residency status, until their departure date or

their obligation to leave Estonia. GBV victims lose access to services once they leave

Estonia.71

Furthermore, Equal Treatment Act72 safeguards individuals from discrimination based

on nationality (ethnicity), race, colour, religion or belief, age, disability, or sexual

orientation. According to the Act, discrimination on the grounds of nationality (ethnic

origin), race, or colour is strictly prohibited. Therefore, all services provided to local

citizens should be also provided to refugees and other legally staying persons

including those who have faced GBV.

______________________

69 Victim Support Act §17 (2). 70 See more here: https://sotsiaalkindlustusamet.ee/en/child-and-adult-need-help/support-victims/womens-support-centres. 71 Victim Support Act §17 (3). 72 Equal Treatment Act1, RT I, 22.10.2021, 11.

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5. Overview of existing referral pathways and

service providers Estonia does not have a specific legal definition for referral pathways. According to the

Health Board (Tervisekassa), the comprehensive nationwide referral management

system provides an event-based overview of a patient’s treatment journey, covering

various referrals, responses, and care responsibilities. This system ensures continuity

of care, supports clinical processes, saves specialists' time, and improves both patient

experience and the overall quality of healthcare services.73 In this study, the term

"referral pathways" refers to the processes through which survivors of violence

are guided to relevant support services. The schematic description of the existing

referral pathways in Estonia is presented in the Executive summary of the current

report.

5.1 Available support services provided by the service providers

Estonia’s victim support system includes VSS and compensation for crime victims.

National VSS are provided by staff members of the SIB - including victim support

workers, counsellors, coordinators, and specialist - in collaboration with approximately

90 contractual partners such as NGOs, hospitals, psychological service providers, and

around 200 volunteers.

SIB operates a central office responsible for coordinating and delivering victim support

across Estonia. Victim support officers from the SIB are stationed at police stations,

where they offer emotional support, provide guidance and information, and facilitate

communication with other relevant institutions and NGOs. The primary aim of the SIB’s

VSS is to assist individuals affected by crime, violence, or crisis situations, helping

them maintain or restore their coping abilities and sense of security, while also working

to prevent future occurrences of violence.74

Services for victims of GBV are available to any resident of Estonia including

forcibly displaced and stateless people. The VSS is free of charge public service aimed

to maintain, enhance the ability of a victim to cope with the situation.

There are 15 counties in Estonia and each county has at least one official who

specializes in victim support. Victims support office is usually in the same building

as the police.

Asylum-seekers living in an Accommodation Centre for Asylum-Seekers (Vao Centre

and Vägeva Centre) are assisted by the social workers and managers of the centre.

______________________

73 https://www.tervisekassa.ee/en/organization/e-health-products/national-referral-system, accessed 16.01.2025, see also https://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/country-study-victim-support-services-ee.pdf 16.01.2025 74 The Social Insurance Board provides 24/7 crisis counseling in Estonian, Russian, and English via the Victim Support Crisis Hotline (116 006) and the chat feature on the website www.palunabi.ee.

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According to the information gained from SIB and Accommodation Centre for Asylum-

Seekers, all asylum-seekers get access to all relevant services, including medical

help, social counselling and psychological counselling in case of need.

The same services that are provided to Estonian citizens are provided also to refugees

by the local authorities. When the individual, who is a survivor of GBV turns to the

social worker at the local authority, they are offered to be referred to the VSS, with

their consent. Besides the service provided by the public authorities, there are several

NGOs which are also offering GBV VSS.

Service agreements are in place with women’s support centres, sexual violence crisis

centres, organizers of support groups, providers of counselling services for those

involved in sex trade, and providers of mental health support for trauma recovery. Daily

collaboration with NGOs and the private sector ensures comprehensive support for

survivors of violence. Survivors can receive support services via the Victim

Support Crisis Hotline at 116 006 or the Emotional Support and Pastoral Care

Hotline at 116 123.

Support is also available for those who have experienced particularly severe events.

High-risk domestic violence victims - those whose lives are in danger - receive

support through the MARAC network model (Multi-Agency Risk Assessment

Conference).75 MARAC network includes professionals from such as victim support,

police, prosecution, local government and child protection, women's support centre,

specialist supporting perpetrators in giving up violence, MARAC volunteer, and, when

justified, other institutions.

The MARAC model involves assessing victims' needs, creating personalized safety

plans, and holding regular case-management meetings. Once the intervention has

successfully ensured the victim's safety and protection, active intervention concludes,

and a one-year monitoring period begins. Each member of the MARAC network has

clearly defined roles and responsibilities. The main goal of the model is to prevent

homicides, suicides, serious harm, and the transmission of trauma across generations

resulting from intimate partner violence.

The MARAC model emphasizes that high-risk cases require coordinated responses

across multiple agencies, involving shared information and integrated services. Since

2024, MARAC core teams have been active in every Estonian county, including

representatives from VSS, police, municipalities, women’s support centres,

prosecutor’s offices, child protection agencies, and medical institutions. Public

perception views MARAC as an effective and timely intervention, and media reports

frequently highlight its significance.

______________________

75 Social Insurance Board, Helping an Adult Victim of Domestic Violence in Distress (MARAC Model), https://sotsiaalkindlustusamet.ee/MARAC.

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Overall, survivors of GBV can access the following assistance and services:

1. Healthcare and medical assistance integrated with police services. Victims

can call 112 for urgent medical help, visit emergency reception, and report

offenses to the police.

2. Victim support centres (incl. Women support centres) provide medical and

legal assistance, initial counselling on claiming damages, psychosocial crisis

care, family therapy, and referrals to professional psychotherapists. They also

assist in communication with state and local authorities.

3. Sexual violence crisis centres in major hospitals offer support, medical

examinations, psychological referrals, preventive treatment against HIV and

hepatitis B, and police contact if needed.

4. Women’s help centres and sexual violence centres offer 24/7 assistance,

shelter, and support services.

5. Accommodation centres (Vao and Vägeva) provide primary healthcare

access for asylum-seekers and international protection holders.

6. Social Insurance Board helpline (116 006) offers free, 24/7 anonymous

assistance in Estonian, English, and Russian for GBV victims. Other languages

are not supported.

7. Women’s helpline (1492) provides 24/7 counselling for women experiencing

physical, psychological, economic, or sexual abuse.

8. Children’s helpline (116 111) offers counselling, legal, medical, and

psychological support for children in Estonian, English, and Russian. Other

languages are not supported.

9. Online support is available via www.palunabi.ee, [email protected], and

www.lasteabi.ee in Estonian, English, and Russian. Other languages are not

supported. They provide legal, medical, and psychosocial assistance.

In June 2018, the Estonian police launched public campaign "Aga mina julgen

sekkuda" ("But I Dare to Intervene") to encourage reporting of intimate partner violence

and highlight it as a societal issue. Despite efforts, many cases remain unreported. In

2017, 2,632 domestic violence crimes were registered, with 40 per cent of survivors

experiencing repeat violence within five years. The campaign was part of the broader

"Aga mina" ("But Me") initiative to promote a safer society.76 In early 2018, the

Estonian police launched a campaign highlighting stalking as a crime, punishable by

a fine or up to one year in prison. Criminalized in 2017, stalking includes repeated

unwanted contact, following, or interference causing fear or distress. It affects both

adults and youth, often through online bullying.77

______________________

76 PBGB, Domestic violence prevention campaign, www.politsei.ee/et/juhend/ennetusprojektid. 77 PBGB, Harassing stalking campaign, www.politsei.ee/et/juhend/ennetusprojektid/ahistava-jalitamise-kampaania.

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To gain a deeper understanding and evaluate the existing referral pathways, 15

interviews were conducted with stakeholders and service providers. The role of each

institution is provided below.

The Police and Border Guard Board (PBGB) is often the first point of contact for

GBV or SEA survivors, it is also a part of the MARAC system. Police are required to

inform survivors about support services. With the survivor’s consent, their contact

details are shared with a victim support worker, and joint home visits may be

conducted with police and support workers. Survivors receive an informational booklet

with contact details for key support institutions, including police, shelters, victim

support, and welfare services. The booklet also outlines survivors’ rights and includes

space for personalized contact information provided by the police. It is available in

Estonian, Russian, and English. Other languages are not available, which can be a

limitation for the forcibly displaced people to access the services.78

The Social Insurance Board (SIB), operating under the Ministry of Internal Affairs,

provides VSS. When a survivor of GBV seeks assistance, SIB assesses their needs

and refers them to appropriate services, including the police, psychologists, women's

shelters, social workers, or hospitals. The closest collaboration is with the police,

where case management networks are created to address incidents. While

communication with psychologists and the prosecutor’s office occurs, it is primarily

oral to maintain confidentiality. However, cooperation with medical institutions is

limited, as they often do not provide feedback, even in cases where survivors are

referred directly to clinics.79 SIB is a part of the MARAC system. Its aim is to assist a

grown-up survivor of family violence in need and to provide rapid and effective support.

Tallinn Migration Centre (Tallinna Rändekeskus) provides counselling services to

refugees and migrants, regularly assisting individuals - predominantly women - who

have experienced GBV. Consultants at the centre offer immediate psychological

support and advise clients on available VSS.

The Women Support and Information Centre (MTÜ Naiste Tugi-ja Teabekeskus)

provides safe accommodation for women who have experienced violence or threats

of violence. Its services include temporary housing, psychological counselling, crisis

support, assistance with contacting authorities, legal counselling (e.g., regarding court

proceedings, divorce, or child protection issues), and help in rebuilding their lives.

Women can select services according to their individual circumstances, with

consultations tailored to their specific needs.

______________________

78 PBGB, Prevention Materials, www.politsei.ee/et/juhend/ennetusalased-materjalid. 79 Interview with SIB, 20.12.2024.

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There are several women shelters80 in Estonia though they do not have individual

websites. Information about these accommodation centres, available services, and

contact numbers can be accessed online via naisteabi.ee. These shelters receive

women 24 hours a day and provide immediate assistance: accommodation,

psychological crisis help, assistance in contacting authorities.

However, a noted concern is that some women’s shelters do not accommodate

women with a migration background, as highlighted in an interview with one of the

NGOs. The noted reasons to this were the low capacity and scarce resources of some

shelters to provide assistance to survivors of GBV.81

The Accommodation Centres for Asylum-Seekers (Vao and Vägeva Centres)

provide housing and support services for individuals applying for international

protection and assist recipients of protection in settling within local communities.

These centres offer various forms of support throughout the international protection

process, including referrals to medical care, psychological support, referral to the legal

aid, translation services, and police assistance when necessary. In cases of GBV,

survivors are referred to the police.

Estonian Refugee Council (ERC) provides support services to beneficiaries of

international protection in Estonia. As one of the main competence centres on forced

migration and integration in Estonia, ERC also plays a role in the referral mechanism

by directing individuals to the services they need.

Estonian Human Rights Centre (EHRC) is an independent NGO founded in

December 2009, advocates for human rights in Estonia and provides free legal advice

to refugees and migrants in Estonia. If EHRC works with a person, who is a survivor

of GBV, they refer them to the VSS of SIB.

The International Organization for Migration (IOM) has operated in Estonia for 20

years, focusing on counter-trafficking, integration, voluntary return, and public

awareness. It developed a national cultural orientation programme and trains officials

and NGOs. IOM case managers support vulnerable individuals through health

referrals, temporary accommodation, and psychosocial support training for first

responders. In GBV cases, individuals are referred to Victim Support (Ohvriabi).

Lifeline (MTÜ Eluliin) is a volunteer and professional association providing emotional,

psychological, and social counselling. Services include crisis support (e.g., debriefing

groups, EMDR), psychological rehabilitation, and targeted counselling for groups such

as trafficking victims, people involved in prostitution, individuals with addictions, and

______________________

80 Harjumaa, Ida Virumaa, Järvamaa, Jõgevamaa, Läänemaa together with Hiiumaa, Lääne Virumaa, Pärnumaa, Põlvamaa, Raplamaa, Saaremaa, Tartumaa, Valgamaa, Viljandimaa, Võrumaa. 81 Interview with MTÜ Eluliin, 19.11.2024, Later it was verified that at least one women's shelter provided help for a woman with temporary protection status.

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those living with HIV.82 The organization operates a dedicated phone line for persons

engaged in prostitution and regularly runs projects.

Tartu Welcome Centre supports migrants in settling into the Tartu and South Estonia

region. The team offers free consultations, registry services, and cultural or networking

events. They also provide information on NGOs and SIB services for GBV survivors

of migrant origin when needed.83

Tartu University Hospital (Tartu Ülikooli Kliinikum)84 is both a healthcare provider

and a research institution. For this study, representatives and a doctor were

interviewed to gather insights on referral pathways and identify areas for improvement

in the field of SEA and GBV.

Feministeerium (MTÜ Feministeerium) is an independent feminist organization

whose main areas of activity are communication, advocacy and empowerment of the

feminist community.85 The representatives of the NGO publish articles about GBV to

raise awareness about the existing issues.

Tallinn Women Crisis Centre (Tallinna Naiste Kriisikodu) supports survivors of

physical, sexual, psychological, and economic violence, with a focus on domestic

violence. The centre helps women - along with their children, if needed - break the

cycle of violence and works to prevent future abuse. Its mission is to ensure that every

child can grow up in a non-violent environment.86

In addition, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)

country office in Estonia provides referrals for survivors of GBV through its online

platform, which offers guidance to refugees and asylum-seekers on the risks of human

trafficking, a concern often linked to GBV. The website includes resources on how to

stay safe, recognize signs of exploitation, and seek assistance. In cases of suspected

human trafficking or related abuses, the online guidance advises individuals to contact

the Estonian police via the emergency number 112 or reach out SIB's human

trafficking prevention and victim assistance counselling line.

Finally, the referral point can be also a local municipality social worker or NGOs giving

help to GBV and SEA survivors, women or children that were mentioned above.

______________________

82 Eluliin, www.eluliin.ee/en. 83 Tartu Welcome Centre, https://tartuwelcomecentre.ee/. 84 Tartu University Hospital, www.kliinikum.ee/. 85 Feministeerium, https://feministeerium.ee/. 86 Tallinn Women Crisis Centre, https://naisteabi.ee/.

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6. Results

6.1 Interviews with victim support service providers and

stakeholders

For the purpose of this study interviews were conducted with service providers and

stakeholders from municipalities, state public agencies, NGOs, medical facilities,

reception and accommodation centres for refugees and asylum-seekers, women

shelters, and the International Organization for Migration (altogether n=15). In general,

the interviewees provided positive feedback regarding the overall organization and

coordination and referral pathways of VSS in Estonia. Nevertheless, the

misunderstanding of the referral pathway system due to its complexity,

alongside with a lack of professional expertise and lack of networking, may pose

a risk to the effective provision and referral of VSS in Estonia.

Key take-aways:

1. VSS are available to all individuals who have experienced GBV, including SEA,

regardless of their country of origin, citizenship, age, gender, or cultural and

religious background. However, service providers often face communication

challenges due to language barriers. Most speak Estonian, English, or Russian,

with limited capacity in other languages. Information about services is not

always available in languages understood by survivors, and materials are often

text-heavy with minimal visual content, which can limit accessibility - especially

for those unfamiliar with local languages.

2. Some VSS providers lack an emotional and empathic mindset and/or deep

knowledge of different cultures, religious beliefs, and traditions that often

impede achievement of desired outcomes.

3. Due to limited financial resources and priorities, VSS providers have limited

opportunity to participate in the international courses or trainings, which are

based on scientific evidence to be able to learn best European practices87 in

victims’ support.

The following paragraphs present results from interviews according to the main

themes.

Theme I - Legal and Regulatory Framework

All interviewees noted that the VSS listed in Article 15(2), points 1-8 of the Victim

Support Act (see pp.25-26) of the current report), should be reviewed, clarified, and

better explained. It was pointed out that the current list does not provide sufficient

detail about the content or scope of the services. Terms such as “basic victim support

service” or “psychosocial support in the event of crisis” are not widely understood, and

______________________

87 European project VICToRIIA, Best Practices in Victims’ Support: referrals, information, individual assessment (VICToRIIA), May 2019 https://victim-support.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/best-practices-report-final.pdf.

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there is uncertainty around how the term “crisis” should be interpreted in the absence

of a clear legal definition.

It should also be noted that not all VSS listed in the Act are applicable in every case.

For instance, restorative justice services (Article 15(2), point 6) are not used in cases

involving sexual abuse within families. The use of restorative justice in domestic

violence cases is not considered appropriate and is generally not supported in

practice.88

Theme II - Availability and Accessibility of Services and Effectiveness of Referral

Pathways

Victim Support Services (VSS) are a service regulated by the Victim Support

Act89 and is available for all people in Estonia who have experienced GBV/SEA

regardless of country of origin, social status, age, religion, citizenship, etc.90 There are

no legal barriers to access the services once individual has received the legal status

of asylum-seeker or has international/temporary protection and is registered in the

national population register.91 NGOs with whom the interviews were organized

emphasized that they refer people to the VSS of SIB but do not provide these services

themselves. Although from the legal perspective, this is seen as a positive issue,

however, in practice forcibly displaced persons who have experienced GBV are

more prone to vulnerability92 due to their social and economic status, poor or

inadequate language skills as well as limited knowledge of available services and

referral pathways. Therefore, there are practical issues that need to be addressed.

First, there is some confusion among NGOs regarding the eligibility for VSS. Some

NGO representatives believe that only individuals who have reported the incident to

the police can access these services through SIB. According to SIB, however, this is

no longer a requirement since VSS are provided based on the assessment of the

individual's needs. The Tallinn Welfare and Health Care Department noted that in

cases of domestic violence, services are provided through public welfare providers

(such as AS Hoolekandeteenused) in cooperation with SIB.93 For example, when

domestic violence occurs in an accommodation centre for asylum-seekers, survivors

are offered psychological support and legal assistance. However, “legal assistance” in

this context often refers to the police initiating criminal proceedings, while survivors

may not receive broader legal support, unlike the more comprehensive systems in

______________________

88 See more debate about the restorative justice here: https://restorativejustice.org.uk/blog/using-restorative-justice-cases- domestic-violence. 89§ 4.(1) For the purposes of this Act, victim support means a system of victim support services organized by the state and compensations for victims of crime. (2) For the purposes of this Act, a victim means a person who is harmed or dies as a result of a crime, violence or event of crisis, https://www.riigiteataja.ee/en/eli/503042023004/consolide. 90 Interview with the Social Insurance Board. 91 Interview with Tallinn Welfare and Health Care Department (Tallinna Sotsiaal- ja Tervishoiuamet). 92 Interview with Tallinn Women's Crisis Centre NGO (Naiste Kriisikodu). 93 Interview with Tallinn Welfare and Health Care Department (Tallinna Sotsiaal- ja Tervishoiuamet).

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place in Nordic countries.94 Individuals with legal residence status in Estonia receive

services either through local government structures or the SIB’s VSS.95

Second, service providers often encounter challenges in communication with forcibly

displaced people due to language barriers. Most of the interviewees communicate in

three main languages: Estonian, English, and Russian. Only a few of them speak other

languages.96 Information about services is not always available in languages that the

survivors understand (except English, Russian, Estonian). Following the 2022 large-

scale arrival of refugees from Ukraine, some information is available also in Ukrainian.

The information sheets and booklets are provided in text with little visual illustrations

that might help forcibly displaced people recognize acts of violence or sexual abuse.97

It should be noted that translation services are provided for a two-year period within

the VSS. It is commonly expected that during a two-year period, the forcibly displaced

people are able to get sufficient knowledge of the Estonian language.98 The two-year

period of translation services is quite short, and some people might need more time to

deal with the case of GBV and be better integrated into society. Consequently, there

should be some other alternatives to provide translation services after the two-

year period is over.

All interviewees agreed that communication with refugees and asylum-seekers from

the Middle East has been more challenging compared to those from Russian,

Ukrainian, English, Spanish, or French-speaking countries, mainly due to the scarcity

of skilled translators proficient in languages such as Arabic, Aramaic, Farsi, or

Punjabi.99 They have also mentioned that body language and gesticulation are not

always helpful. Due to poor communication, many refugees and asylum-seekers

experience fear and mistrust towards representatives of state agencies,100 which

often leads to them rejecting the assistance offered by state authorities. The fear of

disclosing domestic violence and sexual abuse is often linked to the misconception,

that they might be deported because of contacting the police.101

Third, service providers may lack sufficient awareness, knowledge, and expertise

to effectively work with individuals from diverse cultural and social

backgrounds. They might not always recognize the differences in traditions, cultural

practices, and religious aspects among refugees from low- and middle-income

______________________

94 Interview with Feministeerium. See also G. Roosaar, 24.10.2024. ‘Estonia needs the “Yes Means Yes” model of affirmative consent. A report from the President Kaljulaid Foundation’s Tallinn Consent Law Forum’, https://feministeerium.ee/en/estonia- needs-the-yes-means-yes-model-of-affirmative-consent-a-report-from-the-president-kaljulaid-foundations-tallinn-consent-law- forum/. 95Interview with Tallinn Welfare and Health Care Department (Tallinna Sotsiaal- ja Tervishoiuamet). https://www.palunabi.ee/et/vota-uhendust. 96 Interview with International Migration Organization (Rahvusvaheline Migratsiooniorganisatsioon) 97 Interview with International Protection Counsels. 98 Interview with the Social Insurance Board. 99 Interview with International Protection Counsels. 100 As noted by interviewees, the state authorities are repressive in many low- and middle-income countries. 101 Interview with Eluliin.

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countries. Many interviewees emphasized that regardless of service providers’

education level and working experience, they lack an emotional and empathic

approach and therefore face challenges in understanding survivors’ psychological

experiences102 and the underlying causes of their low self-esteem. Therefore,

consultations and services provided for people who have experienced GBV must take

their psychosocial needs into account.103

Having general knowledge about the cultural diversity, religious beliefs, and traditions

of different countries does not automatically translate into practical skills for

establishing and maintaining trust-based, mutually respectful dialogue with individuals

from diverse identities and cultural backgrounds.104 Furthermore, the identification

of domestic (family) violence and sexual abuse remains often misrecognized

unless forcibly displaced people do not share their experiences.105 The identification

of violence and sexual abuse is difficult, because the topic of domestic (family)

violence and sexual abuse is stigmatized and reporting about the violence, is often

considered to be socially unacceptable among forcibly displaced people, because it is

considered a private family matter that should remain within the household.106 In many

Eastern cultures, discussing personal or sensitive issues publicly is uncommon and is

often expressed as “Do not air your dirty laundry in public”.107 Women seeking shelter

often avoid discussions due to cultural and traditional differences, mistrust of state

agency representatives, limited language skills (e.g., illiteracy in some cases), and

financial dependence on their spouses. Domestic violence typically comes to light only

when a woman's tolerance has been exceeded.108 Available mental health services,

even when referrals are made, are often underused by forcibly displaced individuals

due to stigma, fear, and the perception of mental health as a taboo subject.109

Fourth, limited access to training based on scientific evidence leads to

misunderstandings about the challenges faced by refugees and asylum-seekers.110

With growing market demands, all specialists, especially newcomers, require regular

training before working with refugees and asylum-seekers affected by GBV.111

Interviewees emphasized the importance of training and courses to stay updated

on legal amendments, referral pathways, and to provide accurate information to

refugees and asylum-seekers. They agreed that topic-specific training (e.g., self-

help psychological training or communication skills for working with violence survivors)

is mandatory during the first year of employment, with the required number of

sessions ranging from two to five, depending on the organization. Only one

______________________

102 Interview with Tallinna Naiste Kriisikodu. 103 Interview with Tallinn Welfare and Health Care Department (Tallinna Sotsiaal- ja Tervishoiuamet). 104 Interview with Rändekeskus. 105 All interviewees. 106 Ibid. 107See the meaning of the idiom in Merriam-Webster Dictionary, https://www.merriam- webster.com/dictionary/air%20one%27s%20dirty%20laundry. 108 Interview with Tallinn Welfare and Health Care Department (Tallinna Sotsiaal- ja Tervishoiuamet). 109 Ibid. 110 Ibid. 111 All interviewees.

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organization required training certificates before employment. Topic-specific training

is typically provided internally or by local organizations. However, specialists working

directly with refugees often lack access to international networks, except for those

in medical, state, or international institutions. Barriers include the exclusivity of

professional networks, high costs of overseas training, limited funding, and insufficient

knowledge about available networks.

Compared to other West European countries, Estonia has limited experience in

working with refugees, especially it was the case prior to the Russian-Ukrainian war.112

As a result, specialists often lack insights into how institutional coordination is

organized in these countries. Beyond technical know-how (including interpretation

services used for survivors who speak languages other than Estonian, English or

Russian), understanding cultural diversity and enhancing communication skills

are crucial. Most rely on independent research and express a need for networking

opportunities to learn from European counterparts, particularly in Finland and Sweden.

One interviewee highlighted the importance of in-depth, research-based training

that incorporates real-world case studies. They suggested that such training

include problem-solving, and collaboration in mixed groups with healthcare providers,

psychologists, sociologists, and legal experts. This approach would introduce new

concepts and foster integrative thinking beyond routine practices.113

The interviewees emphasized that training and awareness-raising programmes,

campaigns about domestic violence and sexual abuse, and available VSS are

needed for the entire population in Estonia in different languages.114 Domestic

violence and sexual abuse are equally prevalent in Estonian families, particularly

during holidays and weekends. However, there is a common misconception that such

issues are more common among migrants or asylum-seekers from low- and middle-

income countries, leading to a focus on training aimed at integrating them into Estonian

society, culture, and social norms.115

Fifth, it should be clarified that service provision and referral pathways are two

separate issues. There is a need for expertise to understand their problems, identify

their needs, and assess potential threats to their health or well-being. Some

interviewees noted that cultural differences might hinder local social workers and other

specialists from fully understanding offenses committed in the name of community

honour, which are acts of violence or coercion aimed at preserving or restoring the

perceived honour of a family or community.116

______________________

112 Interview with Tallinna Rändekeskus. 113 Interview with International Protection Counsels. 114 All interviewees. 115 Interview Tartu Ülikooli Kliinikum. 116 Interview with International Protection Counsels, see more about honour crimes: https://www.britannica.com/topic/honour- killing.

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An empathetic and perceptive individual, even without extensive professional

experience, can still deliver high-quality services. In contrast, someone lacking a

professional network may face challenges in connecting individuals to the appropriate

services at the right time. Therefore, the evaluation of effectiveness of referral

pathways depends on the professional experience and available network.117 The

average experience working in the field of interviewees was around seven to ten years,

while few have 20 years of work experience.

The interviewees from NGOs expressed concerns about limited access to and

availability of services due to restricted funding and prioritization of security in

funding allocations. Current services fail to meet all survivors' needs, and insufficient

funds make it impossible to hire additional caseworkers or specialists. As a result,

NGOs are forced to limit the time dedicated to each individual.118

Theme III - Institutional Roles and Coordination

The role of institutions ranges from providing information and assistance with legal

documentation to offering psychological counselling, medical support, and shelter for

women and children affected by GBV and/or SEA, as well as coordinating services.

While not all interviewed institutions provide VSS directly, they often refer asylum-

seekers, refugees, and other affected individuals to relevant resources. Institutional

representatives were generally aware of each other’s roles and the available

services. Although referral pathways were described as accessible, partly due to

Estonia’s small size.

Theme IV - Satisfaction and Service Quality

Most representatives of the service providers confirmed that they do not collect

feedback from refugees and asylum-seekers or people experienced GBV due to

ethical considerations and because these people usually do not come back.119

Therefore, the organizations do not have any standard feedback form. Refugees and

asylum-seekers are free to write about their experience, but they are not required.

Nevertheless, SIB has recently issued a new platform to assess satisfaction with the

VSS.120 The results of the project will be published in the coming years.

Almost all interviewees noted that migrants, refugees, and asylum-seekers often feel

uncomfortable with the healthcare booking system and long waiting times in

Estonia.121 This discomfort is not due to a lack of digital skills, but rather differences in

how healthcare is organized compared to their home countries. Many are accustomed

______________________

117 Interview with International Protection Counsels, Tallinna Rändekeskus, Tallinna Naiste Kriisikodu, International Migration Office, Tallinn Welfare and Health Care Department (Tallinna Sotsiaal- ja Tervishoiuamet). 118 Interview Feministeerium, Eluliin, Tallinna Naiste Kriisikodu. 119 Interview with Tartu University Kliinikum and International Protection Counsels. 120 Ohvriabi, Feedback, https://www.palunabi.ee/et/tagasiside. 121 Interviews with the International Migration Office, Reception Centre for Asylum-seekers, Tallinna Naiste Tugikeskus.

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to accessing family doctors directly during walk-in hours, whereas in Estonia, non-

urgent cases often involve long waits and no direct contact with the family doctor.

Theme V - Recommendations for Improvement

All interviewees emphasized the importance of raising public awareness on GBV and

improving information dissemination to the public. Specific recommendations

received from the interviewees are outlined below:

1. Create visual information sheets with pictures and animations to make GBV

information accessible for those who cannot read or understand commonly

spoken languages in Estonia.

2. Raise awareness and understanding of GBV and cultural differences among

stakeholders, including educators at all levels. Provide training to address

biases and improve engagement, especially for those working long-term in this

field.

3. Strengthen cooperation with Nordic and Western European countries to

enhance referral pathways and identify additional services needed alongside

existing ones.

4. Avoid piloting restorative justice services in cases of sexual abuse involving

intimate partners or family members, as specialized interventions are required.

5. Encourage open discussions on GBV, especially with healthcare professionals

like general practitioners, gynaecologists, and nurses, to create a supportive

environment for survivors.

6. Revise policies for trafficking and sexual exploitation survivors to remove

barriers, such as the fear of deportation, that prevent them from reporting

crimes and seeking help.

7. Expand the number of service providers and improve service efficiency by

training new specialists to meet the growing demand for GBV support.

8. Increase funding for organizations offering support to GBV survivors, enabling

them to expand and improve their services.

9. Ensure better access to free legal counselling so survivors can effectively

navigate their situations with appropriate legal support.

6.2 Interviews with individuals holding temporary status in Estonia

For this study, online interviews were conducted with five women aged 24–55, all

holding temporary protection status and having arrived from Ukraine in March 2022.

Participants were informed of their right to skip any questions they found

uncomfortable and could withdraw at any time. Two interviewees reported experiences

of gender-based (domestic) violence. Among the group, two raised concerns about

the quality of services received upon arrival and during their stay, while one noted

issues with accessibility. Although most interviewees were generally satisfied with the

availability and coordination of services, they also shared suggestions for

improvement, which are summarized below.

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Basic information, information sharing and awareness raising in GBV and SEA

The interviewees reported that upon arrival in Estonia, they were provided with the

emergency number (112) and the family doctor consultation phone number (1220).

They confirmed that no information booklets were made available or provided

regarding the prevention or reporting of violence and sexual abuse, including

during the information days for newly arrived refugees. Information about services for

survivors of violence was only seen in the offices of PBGB and SIB. Nevertheless, the

information was not comprehensive - there was no list of VSS or instructions on

how to access them, but rather general information urging individuals to report such

incidents if they occurred. One person who had experienced GBV confirmed that

access to the VSS and women's shelter service was coordinated by the police.

Further help and services were provided by the women's shelter office. This included

translation services, assistance with reviewing rental contracts, rehabilitation services,

psychological help, and more. The interviewees suggested that there should be more

advertising within social groups (Facebook, Telegram) and information seminars

focused on GBV. These initiatives and seminars could be organized by local

governments, public authorities, or NGOs.

As mentioned earlier, interviewees emphasized that many people are unsure of

where to seek help or where to get support. Many people are reluctant to report

domestic violence due to socio-economic concerns.122 Information should be made

available in places where large groups of people gather, such as healthcare and

educational institutions, and provided in languages other than Estonian. It would be

beneficial to have a single point of access (such as a one-stop shop or libraries) where

all relevant information is available.123 Based on the interviewees' experiences,

current information is dispersed across various websites, making it difficult to

know where to look for it.

Fear of public authorities’ interference

Interviews with forcibly displaced people revealed low awareness of GBV, or

reluctance to acknowledge being survivors. One interviewee started to understand her

situation after she passed some training where mental violence was discussed.

Nevertheless, she did not turn to the police as she felt that she did not have enough

proof to justify the claim. As she did not turn to the police, she also did not get

information about the VSS from the police. She received some counselling from her

doctors from Ukraine. She contacted the psychologist and psychiatrist in Ukraine and

got assistance online. She attempted to handle her situation on her own, fearing that

seeking help from the local government's social worker might lead to her children

being taken away.

______________________

122 Interview with the immigrant on 16 January 2025. 123 Interview 17.01.2025.

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These findings also confirm the findings of the SEIS study that “according to the

respondents, the main barriers that people who have been subjected to GBV could

face when trying to access GBV services would be the following: Stigma and shame

(46 per cent); Lack of awareness (31 per cent); Language and cultural barriers (23 per

cent); Lack of trust in host country services (20 per cent); Fear of retaliation (18 per

cent); Discrimination and bias (14 per cent); Financial constraints (8 per cent);

Inadequate service availability (8 per cent); Lack of trained professionals (4 per cent);

Legal and institutional barriers (2 per cent), etc.”124

Services

To support recovery from war-related trauma and/or experiences of GBV, a more

holistic and person-centred approach is needed. According to interviewees, services

are generally delivered in the same way to all individuals, regardless of whether they

arrived as forcibly displaced persons, students, or for business purposes. In practice,

this means services mirror those offered to the local population, without consideration

for migration background. Despite the widely acknowledged understanding that “one

size does not fit all”, the current system does not adequately address the specific

vulnerabilities and needs of refugees. One interviewee mentioned that no one asked

what they needed. As a result, there are no services specifically tailored for refugees.

Satisfaction with received services

Individuals who experienced GBV expressed high satisfaction with VSS they

received in Estonia. Nevertheless, more efforts are needed to provide psychological

services. Survivors of GBV are vulnerable and have barriers to open themselves to

foreign people and share private issues.

______________________

124 UNHCR, 2024 Estonia Socio-Economic Insights Survey, https://microdata.unhcr.org/index.php/catalog/1222/, p.17.

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7. Conclusion

This chapter presents the main findings on the accessibility, availability, and

effectiveness of VSS and referral mechanisms. The research questions are addressed

in a structured and consistent manner.

The analysis indicates that the status and rights of survivors have been amended in

the Code of Criminal Procedure. In Estonia, equal treatment is guaranteed by the

Constitution, the Equal Treatment Act, and the Gender Equality Act. These legal

frameworks ensure access to VSS for all individuals in Estonia, regardless of their

social status. The Victim Support Act, including the definition of a victim, has been

revised to align with EU Directive 2012/29/EU, which establishes minimum standards

for the rights, support, and protection of victims of crime, replacing Council Framework

Decision 2001/220/JHA.

In Estonia, VSS are state-funded and available nationwide. They are typically located

within or near police stations, similar to the practice in other European countries such

as Belgium, Finland, Sweden, and the Netherlands. Effective cooperation and referral

pathways between institutions contribute to the protection of survivors and support the

enforcement of their rights. The following paragraphs present responses to the

research questions.

RQ1: What changes in domestic legislation or social welfare organizations are

needed to ensure equal access to VSS for forcibly displaced people?

Access to VSS is available to all individuals residing in Estonia, regardless of their

social or economic status. Interviewees confirmed that socio-legal status is not

considered a barrier to accessing necessary support services. The provision of VSS

is based on an assessment of the survivor’s needs, typically carried out by a specialist.

While specialists are expected to have the appropriate knowledge, skills, and

professional behaviour, the assessment process remains partly subjective. What is

considered appropriate support for a survivor may not always align with their actual

needs or experiences.

The need for psychological support is assessed by victim support officers using

specific tools, such as a structured questionnaire. In the Vao and Vägeva

Accommodation Centres, psychological support is available on site, while other

centres refer individuals to external psychologists or psychiatrists. In cases of repeated

domestic violence, the MARAC model is applied to coordinate responses across

relevant institutions.

RQ2: Does Estonian legislation regulate the prevention of and response to

violence, including GBV?

The prevention of and response to violence is regulated in the Victim Support Act and

by criminal law provisions. Nevertheless, the prevention of violence might be better

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regulated in national school curricula. The provisions of domestic and sexual violence

can be highlighted better in the legal norms.

RQ3: What referral pathways exist and have been implemented to guide

individuals who have experienced GBV to VSS services? Are these services

comprehensive, effective, timely, and accessible?

Seeking help can begin in different ways, with one option being to turn to the police,

who then guide survivors to VSS. However, in many cases, social services or NGOs

serve as the initial point of contact, providing survivors with immediate support and

referrals to relevant services. Organizations providing VSS collaborate with NGOs and

other service providers to ensure survivors receive comprehensive assistance tailored

to their needs. The VSS are provided by the SIB and are available in all counties of

Estonia. If needed, survivors can receive support from doctors and psychologists, legal

counselling, shelter for up to six months, and employment counselling. The full list of

services is outlined in the Victim Support Act. Doctors can also refer their patients to

the VSS.

The interviewees gave positive feedback about the services they received. Most

complaints were related to limited accessibility and long waiting times for family

doctors or specialized medical care. Interviewed individuals were not accustomed to

waiting for an appointment with a general practitioner (GP) and expected to be seen

by a doctor on the same day. Overall, the VSS services were perceived as being

delivered professionally.

RQ4: How is the coordination between these institutions organized to ensure

that individuals who have experienced GBV receive comprehensive and

effective support?

A list of organizations and NGOs supporting individuals who have experienced GBV

is provided in Annex 1 of the study. Based on interviews with various service providers,

it appears that they are generally well-informed about the services offered by other

actors in the field. Opportunities for joint training have been available, and there is

ongoing communication between different NGOs and SIB’s VSS.

The referral mechanism between the police and VSS is well established, supported by

the presence of victim support staff in police stations, formalized procedures for

handling domestic violence cases, and close working relationships between police

officers and victim support personnel. While medical professionals and institutions are

not formal members of the MARAC network, they often refer high-risk survivors and

help identify cases involving sexual abuse and violence. However, interviews revealed

that health institutions are not fully integrated into the broader referral system, which

may limit coordination and continuity of care for survivors. Additionally, the Ministry of

Social Affairs has issued guidelines for handling cases involving trafficking survivors,

which can be used by caseworkers.

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RQ5: What roles do various institutions and actors (e.g., social support

services, healthcare, law enforcement, NGOs) play in providing support for

individuals who have experienced GBV?

The VSS also provides guidance to specialists such as doctors, social workers, and

teachers. VSS offers various training programmes, including psychological first aid,

support for survivors of hate crimes and human trafficking, as well as counselling and

access to essential training and learning resources.

The current research indicates that information about available services can be found

on the websites of relevant agencies and NGOs. However, there may be challenges

in accessing specialized healthcare due to long waiting times and language barriers,

particularly if the survivor does not speak Estonian, English, or Russian as their native

language. The referral standards can be clearer and more visible. Furthermore,

coordination between different institutions can be improved to ensure protection

standards for refugees and asylum-seekers.

RQ6: How are individuals (who have experienced GBV) informed about relevant

social support services, and what are the primary sources of information for

forcibly displaced people?

The study confirmed that information is also disseminated through social media and

shared among survivors via personal contacts. For example, when individuals seek

help from NGOs such as the ERC or EHRC, they are referred to the VSS of SIB if

needed. Some services are also provided by the medical professionals working in the

crisis help centres (Kriisiabi).

The role of local governments and social workers is crucial in identifying issues faced

by GBV survivors, particularly among refugees. For asylum-seekers and residents of

asylum reception centres, access to information is better ensured, as details about

available services are provided in both written and oral formats. Reception centres

have also dedicated information boards where relevant details can be posted. In

contrast, individuals living outside reception centres often rely on online sources or

social media platforms such as Telegram, Facebook, TikTok, and Instagram to access

information. This research confirms the results of the study Developing Directive-

Compatible Practices for the Identification, Assessment, and Referral of Victims:

National Report, Estonia125 conducted by the Institute of Baltic Studies in 2017. The

studies conclude that referral pathways function effectively if there is a strong network

of specialists.

During the data collection process for this study, available services and referral

mechanisms were identified and described above. In Estonia, all essential VSS -

including healthcare, psychological support, safety, security, and access to justice -

______________________

125Maarja Vollmer, Anna Markina, Developing directive-compatible practices for the identification, assessment and referral of victims, 2017, https://www.ibs.ee/en/publications/developing-directive-compatible-practices-for-the-identification-assessment- and-referral-of-victims/.

Study on the assessment of the existing referral pathways for forcibly displaced and stateless people

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are available for refugees, asylum-seekers, and stateless persons who have

experienced GBV. These services are provided by the SIB, hospitals, family doctors,

psychologists, psychiatrists, and specialized NGOs.

There is close cooperation between the police and VSS, as victim support workers are

stationed in police buildings. Women’s shelters collaborate with child protection

services and NGOs that provide legal assistance and psychological support. This

system is well-established and generally considered effective.

RQ7: What legal, practical as well as organizational and administrative barriers

do individuals, who have experienced GBV, face in accessing VSS in a timely

and adequate manner?

It was identified that certain legal gaps exist, as service providers are unclear about

the exact content of services and the definition of a “crisis situation”. While the names

of VSS are listed in VSA, neither their specific scope nor meaning are clearly defined.

The confusion among providers results in a situation where services might not be

referred.

Interviews revealed that many refugees are unaware of their rights, where to seek

services, or to whom to turn in case of a need. They often do not know that they are

entitled to assistance and financial compensation for damages. Additionally, not all

individuals understand the meaning of GBV, the level of societal tolerance for such

acts, or the local values that protect survivors.

According to interviewees, information about available services is too scattered and

not easily accessible for those in need. It was suggested that information on GBV

should be displayed in locations where people frequently visit, such as doctors'

surgeries, SIB offices, libraries, bus stations, public spaces, cinemas, and buses.

Moreover, it would be beneficial to provide informational materials and visual

explanations in places where people spend extended periods, such as medical waiting

rooms, cafeterias, and shops.

Language barriers were also highlighted as a significant concern. Limited proficiency

in Estonian places vulnerable individuals in a more difficult position, as it can restrict

access to essential information and hinder communication with service providers.

Additionally, poor knowledge of Estonian creates obstacles in the job market,

particularly for positions that require fluency in the language.

RQ8: Are forcibly displaced people, who have experienced GBV, satisfied with

the accessibility and quality of the services provided? If not, what were the

primary reasons for limited or inadequate support?

The satisfaction rating among the interviewed individuals was very high. It was

suggested that having a designated platform, such as a website or a feedback post

box, would allow individuals to share their opinions about the services, participate

Study on the assessment of the existing referral pathways for forcibly displaced and stateless people

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actively, and respond to issues as they arise. Additionally, the efficient processing of

asylum applications and the prompt issuance of documents were highly appreciated.

Specific recommendations are provided in the sub-section ‘Results II: Interviews with

Individuals Who Experienced GBV’.

Study on the assessment of the existing referral pathways for forcibly displaced and stateless people

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8. Recommendations

During the last decade, Estonia has made remarkable progress in preventing,

mitigating risks, and responding to gender-based violence (GBV). The country has

dedicated significant efforts and resources to enhance its policies, legislation, and

practices. Notably, forcibly displaced and stateless persons have been integrated into

the state protection system ensuring access to GBV-related support and services on

the same footing as citizens. Despite the resources allocated by the state and the well-

established services provided through victim support services, certain refugee-specific

aspects should be considered. These include enhancing awareness in various

languages, improving safe and meaningful access for forcibly displaced and stateless

persons to available services, and ensuring efficient survivor-centered support. Based

on the study, the following recommendations are proposed:

Strengthening the survivor-centered approach

To ensure the effective provision of GBV support services, it is crucial to consistently

apply a survivor-centred approach. This approach should be grounded in voluntary

and informed consent, while also considering the cultural, religious, and diverse

backgrounds of forcibly displaced and stateless persons. Engaging with refugee

communities to raise awareness about GBV and and how to tackle the problem. The

importance of a survivor-centered approach is essential in creating a supportive

environment for survivors.

Elaborating on the types, scope, and duration of GBV services

Detailed instructions on the types, scope and duration of GBV support will facilitate

awareness raising, reduce uncertainties and ensure that forcibly displaced and

stateless individuals understand their rights and the assistance they can expect.

Asylum-seekers and refugees often need one-on-one counselling and individual

support with referrals. They can face specific issues related to their legal status,

documentation, and asylum procedures. Therefore, it is crucial for them to have timely

access to legal counselling and the assistance of a qualified lawyer. The development

of clearer guidance on handling non-violent forms of GBV, recognizing the needs of

specific groups such as older people, persons with disabilities, and unaccompanied or

separated children is essential. Additionally, staff working with these groups should

receive appropriate and continuous training. Furthermore, improved case

management and easy-to-understand support materials, developed with feedback

from forcibly displaced and stateless persons, would be valuable additions to the

system.

Enhancing access to interpretation services

Interpretation services should be more flexible in case a long-term need for this service

is identified. The current two-year standard period may not be sufficient for forcibly

displaced and stateless persons as some of them may require more time to resolve

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their problems and continuous support will ensure their access to services. Alternative

options for accessing assistance in the Estonian language after this period ends could

be explored, such as services offered by volunteers or NGOs, provided they receive

sufficient funding.

Improving national legislation

To enhance the national legal framework, it is important to consider amending sections

§§ 141, 1411, and 143 of the Penal Code of Estonia to fully align with Article 36 of the

Istanbul Convention. These amendments should ensure that sexual acts are based

on voluntary consent and allow for punishment even in the absence of physical force

or threats.

Enhancing access to information

Ensuring that GBV support services are accessible to all survivors, including those

from diverse backgrounds, requires more attention to providing information in multiple

languages and considering cultural, religious and other diversity and sensitivities.

Language barriers remain a challenge, as most service-related information is available

only in Estonian, English, or Russian, limiting accessibility for those who do not speak

these languages. Information is often text-heavy with limited visual content, making it

difficult for some individuals to understand. While the police website offers some

materials, including videos and leaflets, they are primarily available in Estonian.126

Visually engaging informational materials, such as leaflets, posters with clear visual

content, and short video clips, should be developed for use by social workers, police,

and other professionals during client interactions. These materials should explain

unacceptable types of violence and where individuals can seek help.

Modernizing information dissemination

The study revealed that traditional information channels - such as television, radio,

newspapers, and leaflets - are becoming less effective. While some interviewees

initially recommended increasing TV and radio outreach, they later acknowledged that

they primarily consume content on platforms like Netflix, YouTube, and social media.

Public awareness campaigns could benefit from adapting to these changing habits,

recognizing that different generations access information through different channels.

Additionally, utilizing trusted community channels, such as local Facebook groups and

other social media groups, to share information and exploring innovative methods for

information dissemination might ensure broad, effective and inclusive outreach across

all demographic groups. Furthermore, bus stops and public transportation could be

used for broader dissemination of information and raising awareness about GBV

definitions, available services, and protection mechanisms. Further study can be

considered to clarify the commonly used media channels and social groups.

______________________

126 Police and Border Guard Board, Prevention Projects and Campaigns, www.politsei.ee/et/juhend/ennetusprojektid/ahistava- jalitamise-kampaania.

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Strengthening capacity development of all stakeholders

Sustainable and continuous GVB capacity development programme is crucial due to

evolving needs and personnel turnover, ensuring staff are equipped to handle various

forms of violence, including psychological, sexual, and financial abuse. Interviewees

from both service providers and NGOs emphasized that despite existing trainings and

available information, there is an ongoing need for comprehensive training for all

stakeholders, including service providers and survivors. These trainings should cover

GBV definitions, effective response strategies, referral pathways, culturally sensitive

support methods, interview techniques, survivor-centred approach, and refugee

protection standards. Online training modules should be integrated into regular

capacity-building programmes for both new and experienced staff, updated regularly

to reflect current good practices.

Enhancing partnership, collaboration and coordination

Fostering stronger partnerships among stakeholders will contribute to more effective

prevention and response measures. While authorities have established collaboration

with service providers and women's support organizations, broader partnerships

among service providers, civil society organizations working with specific groups, UN

agencies, women and refugee-led organizations, and refugee communities, can

enhance the effectiveness of services and raising awareness campaigns and avoid

duplications. Regular coordination meetings to strengthen capacity, facilitate

collection, exchange, and dissemination of data, and share good practices, technical

knowledge, and experiences of forcibly displaced and stateless persons, can

significantly improve service provision, facilitate communication and optimize resource

allocation.

Ensuring allocation of adequate resources for service providers

Considering that women’s centres play a key role in providing shelter and support,

they require adequate resources and attention to effectively assist asylum-seekers

and refugees. Additionally, NGOs providing specialized assistance and refugee-led

organizations offering services to vulnerable groups should be also engaged and

supported. The state funding should cover provision of services, capacity

development, and infrastructure support.

Strengthening of monitoring and evaluation

While the study findings show some improvements in collecting feedback from GBV

survivors, there is still a need to implement robust monitoring and evaluation

mechanisms to assess the effectiveness of the survivor-centered approach. Regularly

seeking feedback from survivors is crucial for understanding their needs and

experiences. This feedback should be systematically used to continuously refine and

enhance services, ensuring they remain truly survivor centered.

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Conducted interviews:

Interview with person holding temporary protection, 03.01.2025.

Interview with person holding temporary protection, 10.01.2025.

Interview with person holding temporary protection, 16.01.2025.

Interview with two persons holding temporary protection, 17.01.2025.

Interview with the Social Insurance Board, 20.12.2024.

Interview with International Protection Counsellors,14.11.2024.

Interview with MTÜ Eluliin, 19.11.2024.

Interview with Feministeerium, 21.11.2024.

Interview with Tallinn Welfare and Health Care Department (Tallinna Sotsiaal- ja

Tervishoiuamet), 22.11.2024.

Interview with Tallinna Rändekeskus, 15.11.2024.

Interview with Tallinna Naiste Tugikeskus (Women Support Centre), 14.11.2024.

Interview Tartu Ülikooli Kliinikum, 15.11.2024.

Interview the International Migration Organization Office in Tallinn, 20.11.2024.

Interview Reception Centre for Asylum-seekers, 19.11.2024.

Interview with Eesti Naiste Varjupaikade Liit, 15.11.2024.

Interview with Human Rights Centre in Tallinn, 19.11.2024.

Estonian Refugee Council, 18.11.2024.

Tartu Välismaalaste Teenuskeskus 22.11.2024.

Family doctor 15.11.2024.

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Annex I - List of organizations and people contacted

No ORGANIZATION CONTACT INFORMATION

1 Estonian Refugee Council (MTÜ Eesti Pagulasabi) www.pagulasabi.ee

2 Social Insurance Board (Sotsiaalkindlustusamet) www.sotsiaalkindlustusamet.ee

4 Estonian Human Rights Centre (Eesti Inimõiguste Keskus)

https://humanrights.ee/en/

5 Women Support and Information Centre (MTÜ Naiste Tugi-ja Teabekeskus) Tallinna Naiste Tugikeskus, Eesti Naiste Varjupaikade Liit

https://naistetugi.ee/ [email protected] [email protected]

6 International Organization of Migration (Rahvusvaheline Migratsiooniorganisatsioon)

[email protected] Tel.: +372 611 6088

7 Tallinn Women's Crisis Centre NGO (Tallinna Naiste Kriisikodu)

[email protected] https://naisteabi.ee/

8 Reception Centre for Asylum-seekers [email protected] https://www.politsei.ee/et/juhend/rahvus vaheline-kaitse/kasulikud-kontaktid

9 The International Protection Advisers at the Police and Border Guard Board

[email protected]

10 Ministry of Social Affairs (Sotsiaalministeerium) [email protected]

11 Life Line (MTÜ Eluliin) https://www.tallinn.ee/et/teenused/kriisi abi-noustamine

12 Tallinn Migration Centre (Tallinna Rändekeskus) https://www.tallinn.ee/et/randekeskus/ta llinna-randekeskus

13 Tartu Welcome Centre (Tartu Välismaalaste Teenuskeskus)

https://tartuwelcomecentre.ee/

17 The Estonian Society of Family Doctors (Eesti Perearstide Liit)

[email protected] [email protected]

18 The Estonian Society for Psychologists (Eesti Psühholoogide Liit)

[email protected]

19 Estonian Association for Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (Eesti Kognitiivse Käitumisteraapia Assotsiatsioon)

[email protected]

20 Estonian Gynaecologists Society(Eesti Naistearstide Selts)

[email protected]

21 Estonian Patients Union (Eesti Patsientide Liit) [email protected]

22 NGO My space (MTÜ Oma tuba, Feministeerium) MTÜ Oma Tuba, Telliskivi 60a/3, Tallinn, 10412

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[email protected]

23 NGO MONDO [email protected]

24 President Kaljulaid Foundation(President Kaljulaid Fond)

[email protected]

25 Tartu University Hospital (Tartu Ülikooli kliinikum) Gynaecologist

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Annex II – TAI permission

Soolist vägivalda kogenud sunniviisiliselt ümberasunud ja kodakondsuseta

inimeste olemasolevate suunamisteede hindamine

Taust ja eesmärk

Selles uuringus hinnati Eestis soolise vägivalla (SV), sealhulgas seksuaalse ärakasutamise ja

kuritarvitamise (SEA) kogenud sunniviisiliselt ümberasunud ja kodakondsuseta inimeste suunamisteede

tõhusust, kättesaadavust ja koordineerimist. Eesmärk oli tuvastada takistused ja

parandamisvõimalused , et tagada soolise vägivalla ohvritele õigeaegsed ja asjakohased tugiteenused.

Sooline vägivald Eestis

• 2023. aastal registreeriti Eestis 7 012 vägivallakuritegu, millest 3 186 olid perevägivalla juhtumid,

mis moodustab 45% kõigist vägivallakuritegudest.

• Vaatamata olemasolevatele teenustele ei otsi märkimisväärne hulk SV ohvritest abi, viidates

häbimärgistamisele, keelebarjäärile, teadlikkuse puudumisele ja hirmule võimude ees.

• 289 potentsiaalset inimkaubanduse ohvrit said riikliku abitelefoni kaudu toetust; ainult 5%

registreeritud vägivallajuhtumitest olid seksuaalkuriteod.

Uuringu metoodika

• Uurimuslik juhtumiuuring, mis kombineeris dokumendianalüüsi, õigus- ja poliitikaraamistiku

ülevaadet ning empiirilisi andmeid.

• 15 intervjuud sidusrühmade esindajatega (riigiasutused, MTÜd, teenusepakkujad).

• 5 individuaalintervjuud ajutise kaitse all olevate naistega.

Joonis 2. Ukraina põgenike teadlikkus soolise vägivallaga seotud teenustest (SEIS, 2024)

Joonis 1. 5 peamist takistust SV teenustele juurdepääsul Ukraina pagulaste seas (SEIS, 2024)

Peamised järeldused

• Suunamisteed on loodud ja toimivad, kuid teabe killustatus ja piiratud asutustevaheline

koordineerimine võivad vähendada nende tõhusust.

• Teenused on kättesaadavad kõigile SV ohvritele, olenemata nende õiguslikust seisundist.

Praktiliste takistuste hulka kuuluvad aga järgmised:

o Keelepiirangud (teenused ainult eesti, inglise, vene keeles).

o Kultuurierinevustest tingitud arusaamatused ja vähene traumateadlikkus tugipersonali

seas.

o Usaldamatus institutsioonide vastu ja hirm väljasaatmise ees pagulaste seas.

o Pagulaste vähene teadlikkus oma õigustest.

o MARACi mudel (Multi-Agency Risk Assessment Conference) on kõrge riskiga juhtumite

puhul peamine vahend, kuid nõuab laiemat institutsionaalset osalust.

Soovitused

1. Parandada mitmekeelset juurdepääsu, tagades, et teave on kättesaadav mitmes keeles, ja

töötada välja visuaalsed, mittetekstipõhised materjalid.

2. Tõhustada ohvrikeskseid lähenemisviise, mis põhinevad vabatahtlikul ja teadlikul nõusolekul,

võttes samal ajal arvesse ka sunniviisiliselt ümberasunud isikute kultuurilist, religioosset ja

mitmekesist tausta.

3. Parandada SV ohvrite juurdepääsu suulise tõlke teenustele ja õigusabile.

4. Tugevdada institutsioonidevahelist koostööd ja teabevahetust, et hõlbustada integreeritud

toetusraamistikke.

5. Investeerida pikaajalisse erialakoolitusse (eelkõige kultuuritundlikkuse koolitusse) ja tagada pidev

juurdepääs rahvusvahelistele parimatele tavadele.

6. Käivitada SV ja suunamisteede teadlikkuse tõstmise kampaaniad, mis on suunatud nii

ümberasunud elanikkonnale kui ka avalikkusele.

7. Rakendada tugevaid seire- ja hindamismehhanisme, et koguda tagasisidet SV-ohvritelt ja hinnata

ohvrikeskse lähenemise tõhusust.

Autorlus:

Uuringu viisid läbi: Prof. Lehte Roots ja Dr. Melita Sogomonjan

Tellija: UNHCR Põhjamaade ja Baltimaade esindus

Kuupäev: märts 2025

Kontaktisik: Mariia Khrapunenko, [email protected] | Tel. +372 5631 1239