Kiri

2025-01-20

Impact assessment of the proposals for

amended marine spatial plans for the Gulf of

Bothnia, the Baltic Sea and Skagerrak/Kattegat

Final version (ref. 00764–2022)

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Impact assessment of proposals for amended

marine spatial plans for the Gulf of Bothnia, the

Baltic Sea and Skagerrak/Kattegat

Final version (ref. 00764-2022)

This report has been produced by the Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management.

The Agency is responsible for the content and conclusions of the report.

© SWEDISH AGECY FOR MARINE AND WATER MANAGEMENT | Date: 2025-01-20

Cover image: Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management

Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management | Box 11 930 | 404 39 Gothenburg | https://www.havochvatten.se/en

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Preface

On 10 February 2022, the Government adopted Sweden’s first marine spatial plans for the Gulf of

Bothnia, the Baltic Sea and Skagerrak/Kattegat. The marine spatial plans are the state's

comprehensive guidance to state authorities, regions and municipalities when planning and

examining claims for the use of areas in the sea. The considerations in the marine spatial plans

are strategic and long-term. In connection with the decision on the marine spatial plans in 2022,

the Government also decided on a new assignment focusing on new areas for energy extraction

in the marine spatial plans. This is to enable offshore energy extraction with an additional 90

terawatt hours of annual electricity production in addition to the areas included in the agreed

marine spatial plans (M2022/00276).

The Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management has drawn up proposals for amended

marine spatial plans for the Gulf of Bothnia, the Baltic Sea and Skagerrak/Kattegat, together with

an impact assessment, through broad dialogue and collaboration with many different

stakeholders. Marine spatial planning is an important tool for achieving long-term sustainable

development and management in Sweden's marine areas.

The function of the impact assessment is to provide a broad picture of the potential effects and

consequences of the plan proposal, with an emphasis on effects from offshore wind power. The

impact assessment complies with the standard for the environmental impact assessment required

within the framework of strategic environmental assessment pursuant to Chapter 6, Sections 1–

19 of the Environmental Code.

Two formal dialogues have been carried out, consultations in autumn 2023 and a review in

spring-summer 2024. In addition to the national consultation, the Swedish Agency for Marine and

Water Management has also held an international Espoo consultation through the Swedish

Environmental Protection Agency to gather the views of neighbouring countries. Comments have

formed the basis for the development of both the plan proposal and the impact assessment.

Gothenburg, January 2025

Anna Ledin

Director-General, Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management

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Summary

The impact assessment describes the impact of the proposed marine spatial plan on

environmental, social and economic aspects linked to the state of the sea, maritime industries

and marine interests. The assessments are carried out at an overall level in accordance with the

Environmental Code’s rules on strategic environmental assessment. The focus is on assessing

direct and indirect effects and impacts in the short and long term linked to the plan’s guidance on

the most suitable use and particular consideration. Assessments are made for each marine

spatial plan; the Gulf of Bothnia, the Baltic Sea and Skagerrak/Kattegat. An overall assessment is

also carried out jointly for the three marine spatial planning areas and an assessment of the

significance of the plan in relation to relevant plans, programmes and strategies.

In the impact assessment, there is a strong focus on assessing the impact from the proposed

energy areas. New proposals for energy areas are the main difference from the agreed marine

spatial plans. It is also the focus of the government assignment from 2022 to expand the area for

offshore energy production in order to achieve an objective of enabling an annual electricity

production of 120 TWh in the territorial sea and exclusive economic zone.

Overall assessment of the impact of offshore wind energy

Transboundary and cumulative impacts

In the territorial seas and exclusive economic zones of Sweden and neighbouring countries,

human activity is continuously increasing. Planned offshore wind power is expected to account for

a sharp increase in the short and medium term, in Sweden and in neighbouring countries.

Therefore, consideration needs to be given to the risk of cumulative effects of mainly offshore

wind power, but also other activities. The energy areas in the plan proposals can contribute to

cumulative effects in the Gulf of Bothnia and Skagerrak/Kattegat. No new energy areas are

proposed in the Baltic Sea, and therefore no new contributions to cumulative effects in the marine

spatial plan area follows.

The risk of cumulative effects is particularly high in areas with a high concentration of energy

areas where there are high nature values and ecological links of international importance, such

as migratory birds and harbour porpoises. The impact on the cultural environment and landscape

is also important in cases where energy expansion is visible from neighbouring countries'

coastlines. Cumulative effects may also occur in relation to shipping where energy expansion can

increase the risk of incidents and reduce maritime safety. When it comes to fishing, there is

extensive foreign fishing in all Swedish marine areas and offshore wind power can affect the

conditions for several fleets. Offshore wind power in Swedish sea areas can also affect other

countries' defence-related activities and vice versa. Cross-border interactions on cumulative

effects are necessary to assess cumulative impacts from a sea basin perspective.

Gulf of Bothnia

The marine spatial plan’s guidance in the Gulf of Bothnia has implications for the marine

environment and biodiversity. Ecological aspects that risk being negatively affected by proposed

energy areas include the ringed seal, which is dependent on ice in order to reproduce and rear its

pups. There are uncertainties regarding the effect of offshore wind power on the conditions for ice

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formation. The risk of impact on migrating salmon is considered to be limited if energy

establishment in shallow coastal areas is avoided. The impact on the benthic habitat is expected

to be small, as well as the impact on fish and spawning grounds. For migratory birds in particular,

the plan proposal entails potentially major negative effects in connection with proposed energy

areas at Finngrunden. Also wintering birds can be negatively affected in this area. The area for

areas with particular consideration to high nature values has been expanded in the plan proposal,

with a special focus on birds, seals and bottom habitats. This is expected to have positive effects

on the protection of biodiversity and contribute to a network of green infrastructure.

For impacts related to climate, water and air, the assessment is that the marine spatial plan

guidance has a major positive effect in that it guides increased opportunities for renewable

energy production that can replace energy types that generate greenhouse gas emissions.

However, the expansion of energy areas may mean changes in the steaming distances for

shipping and commercial fishing. The effect of increased mileage is difficult to assess on the

basis of available information. Both offshore wind energy construction and sand extraction can

lead to local impacts in the form of turbidity and dispersal of sediments, but the assessment is

that this does not affect the marine environment in the long term.

In terms of impact on landscapes, cultural environments and recreation, several energy areas risk

visually affecting national interests, world heritage sites and coastal areas with landscape

protection, such as Haparanda Archipelago, the High Coast and Hornslandet. Energy areas

within a distance of less than 35 kilometres from cultural sites have been designated ‘k’ for

particular consideration of high cultural heritage values, which indicates that particular

consideration should be given to visual impact when establishing energy in these areas.

The plan proposal for the Gulf of Bothnia has the potential to provide energy production of

approximately 130 TWh per year. The Gulf of Bothnia is expected to connect mainly to bidding

zones 1 and 2 and the supply of electricity production is needed for energy transition, primarily for

industry. Energy establishment also leads to positive indirect employment effects. However, the

proposed energy expansion affects other interests in the marine area. In the Gulf of Bothnia,

there are both Swedish and Finnish commercial fishing whose access to fishing areas can be

affected. The impact on commercial fishing is negligible in the Bothnian Bay and North Kvarken,

and medium-sized in the Southern Bothnian Sea. Indirect effects may occur in value chains

linked to the fisheries processing industry and landing ports. Shipping is affected partly by a

slightly longer mileage in the changed fairway in the Southern Bothnian Sea, and partly by the

potential impact on navigation and maritime safety of the increased presence of fixed installations

that offshore wind farms would entail. The plan indicates that safety distances should be

established when designing and permitting energy areas in order to minimise collision risks. The

potential impact on ice formation is an uncertainty factor for winter navigation in the Gulf of

Bothnia.

Baltic Sea

The plan does not provide guidance on more energy areas in the Baltic Sea than the existing or

already licensed wind farms. This means that the plan's guidance on energy extraction does not

contribute to negative effects on the natural environment, cultural environment, outdoor activities,

tourism, shipping, fish and commercial fishing in the plan area.

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At the same time, this means that a large potential for energy extraction is not exploited. A large

contribution to renewable and fossil-free energy in southern Sweden is lacking, as well as the

potential climate benefit an establishment would have provided space for. Limited guidance on

energy extraction and energy areas in the plan area is negative for the wind industry, including

wind power project companies and affected sectors. New electricity production in the Baltic Sea is

expected to connect mainly to bidding zones 3 and 4. In order to achieve this goal, Sweden's

offshore wind power must be realised with a higher concentration in other marine spatial planning

areas.

Investigation areas for shipping around Gotland as well as sand extraction areas remain from the

adopted marine spatial plan.

Skagerrak/Kattegat

The plan proposal for Skagerrak/Kattegat contains energy areas in important migratory routes for

birds and bats. This poses a high risk of negative impacts. The risk of cumulative effects is high

as several of the energy areas with projects that have received permits are assessed to have a

negative effect on birds. Realisation of the energy areas would have a cumulative negative effect

on harbour porpoises in both the northern and southern parts of Skagerrak/Kattegat. Negative

effects on the benthic habitats are considered to be limited if nature values are taken into account

in the design. A potential positive local net effect may arise if energy use replaces bottom trawling

in areas especially in Skagerrak. However, the impact on commercial fishing may mean an

intensification of fishing in adjacent accessible areas with increased pressure in them.

For impacts related to climate, water and air, the assessment is that the marine spatial plan

guidance has a great positive effect in that it guides on increased opportunities for renewable

energy production that can replace fossil fuels and also fuels in the long term, which would lead

to lower levels of air emissions. However, the expansion of energy areas may mean changes in

driving distances for commercial fishing, with the risk of some increase in emissions as a result.

The construction of offshore wind power can lead to local impacts in the form of turbidity and

dispersal of sediments, but the assessment is that this does not affect the marine environment in

the long term.

The west coast has high values from a cultural environment and recreation point of view. A large

number of areas of national interest and national interest claims for the cultural environment and

recreation can be found along the coast. The plan's proposals for energy areas, particularly in

Halland, are expected to have a major negative effect on these interests, with a risk of impact on

the tourism industry. In Skagerrak, the energy areas are located further out from the coast but, on

the other hand, include large areas in the marine area.

The marine spatial plan for Skagerrak/Kattegat guides potential energy extraction of about 20

TWh per year, which would constitute an important addition of fossil-free electricity to parts of

western Sweden. Electricity production is expected to be able to connect to bidding zones 3 and

4. The potential impact on shipping in Skagerrak/Kattegat is assessed to be relatively small, both

for Swedish and international shipping, provided that permits for the establishment of wind farms

take into account existing recommendations. The plan indicates that safety distances should be

established when designing and permitting energy areas in order to minimise collision risks.

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Energy areas were adjusted according to the planning consultation taking into account national

interest claims for commercial fishing and fishing operations. Overall, the impact on commercial

fishing of the energy areas in the marine spatial plan for Skagerrak/Kattegat is considered to have

a potential major impact on commercial fishing in the plan area, primarily in the case of the

northern shrimp fishing, as well as bottom trawling for Norway lobster and fish. This includes the

effects of areas with licensed wind farms. The impact on commercial fishing can also have

second-round effects on value chains, self-processing, the processing industry, affected landing

ports and municipal interests.

Environmental objectives and the EU Marine Strategy for the Marine Environment Directive

The marine spatial plans’ guidance is considered to make both positive and negative

contributions to Sweden’s national environmental objectives. The environmental quality objectives

where the plan has the greatest positive effect are "Limited climate impact". By creating the

conditions for an increased establishment of offshore wind power in the Swedish territorial sea

and Swedish exclusive economic zone, there is potential to replace fossil energy production and,

in the long term, fossil fuels with an alternative that does not generate greenhouse gases. The

environmental quality objectives where the plan has the greatest negative effect are Sea in

balance and living coast and archipelago, A rich plant and animal life, and Good built

environment. Offshore wind affects marine environments both during construction and the

operational phase, which risks negatively affecting ecosystems and threatening biodiversity, such

as birds and marine mammals. The landscape is also affected by offshore wind power, as well as

cultural environments and areas that are important for recreation. For the environmental quality

objectives Fresh air and Non-toxic environment, marine spatial plans have a marginal effect in

that guidance on energy use can affect local emissions, both positively and possibly negatively as

driving distances change. The marine spatial plans’ guidance on sand extraction can lead to local

impacts on the marine environment, and lead to the dispersion of pollutants from sediments.

The marine spatial plans are assessed in relation to the Swedish Marine Environment Regulation

and the EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive to be able to affect the descriptors for

biodiversity (seabirds, marine mammals), alien species, seabed integrity, hydrographic conditions

and underwater noise. It is possible to limit the impact on the marine environment by introducing

conditions and consideration measures, but there are several uncertainties linked to the extensive

deployment of offshore wind power. Uncertainties include potential risks of hydrographical

changes and consequential effects, effects on ice formation, outcomes of consideration measures

and opportunities for coexistence.

Relation of the marine spatial plans to the National Strategy for Sustainable Regional

Development throughout the country 2021 – 2030 and its priorities:

Equal opportunities for housing, work and welfare throughout the country:

• High quality of life with good and attractive habitats - By guiding about areas for use

recreation and cultural environment, as well as consideration and adaptation for natural

and cultural landscapes, the marine spatial plan affects the strategy's priority related to

promoting natural and cultural landscapes, visits in nature, the right of public access and

recreation.

• Good spatial planning - Through the plan's guidance on the most appropriate use and

particular consideration, marine spatial plans contribute to a long-term and balanced

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trade-off between different societal interests. Thus, the marine spatial plans contribute to

the strategy's priority of promoting a sustainable social structure, reduced climate impact,

conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem services in a changing climate, and that the

interests of defence are taken into account.

Innovation and renewal as well as entrepreneurship and entrepreneurship across the country:

• A competitive, circular and bio-based, climate and environmental sustainable economy -

The plan's guidance on energy in two of the marine spatial plans contributes to the

strategy's priority on the deployment, production and use of renewable energy that is

important for regional energy supply and sustainable regional development.

• The plan’s guidance on the use of commercial fishing contributes to the same priority by

taking into account the conditions for commercial fishing.

Accessibility throughout the country through digital communication and the transport system

• Accessibility through sustainable transport systems - The plan's guidance on shipping and

other uses contributes to the priority through maritime transport supply that is significant

for people and businesses across the country. The priority also highlights the importance

of coordination between activities and transport infrastructure at local, regional and

national level.

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Content

Impact assessment of proposals for amended marine spatial plans for the Gulf of Bothnia, the

Baltic Sea and Skagerrak/Kattegat ........................................................................................... 2

Preface ............................................................................................................................................. 3

Summary .......................................................................................................................................... 4

Overall assessment of the impact of offshore wind energy ...................................................... 4

Transboundary and cumulative impacts ........................................................................... 4

Gulf of Bothnia ................................................................................................................... 4

Baltic Sea ........................................................................................................................... 5

Skagerrak/Kattegat ............................................................................................................ 6

Environmental objectives and the EU Marine Strategy for the Marine Environment

Directive ................................................................................................................. 7

Relation of the marine spatial plans to the National Strategy for Sustainable Regional

Development throughout the country 2021 – 2030 and its priorities: ................... 7

Content ............................................................................................................................................. 9

Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 15

Marine spatial planning and objectives of the marine spatial plans ................................ 15

Strategic environmental assessment of marine spatial plans ......................................... 16

Formal requirements for strategic environmental assessment of marine spatial

plans .................................................................................................................... 16

Scope of the impact assessment ........................................................................ 17

International consultation and cooperation ......................................................... 17

Current situation, zero alternative and assessment scenarios ....................................... 18

Current situation and zero alternative ................................................................. 18

The meaning and guidance of the marine spatial plans - Level of exploitation and

realisation ............................................................................................................ 20

Assessment scenarios ........................................................................................ 20

The marine spatial plans’ relation to other plans and programmes ................................ 21

National interests, policy documents and spatial planning ................................. 21

Environmental and climate objectives ................................................................. 24

Terminology and definitions ............................................................................................. 27

Instructions for reading .................................................................................................... 28

Conditions and environmental effects ..................................................................................... 29

Impact on population and health ..................................................................................... 29

Current situation, conditions and development ................................................... 29

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Environmental impacts and impacts linked to offshore wind energy .................. 29

Effects on protected animal or plant species and biodiversity ........................................ 32

Birds ..................................................................................................................... 32

Bats ...................................................................................................................... 34

Marine mammals ................................................................................................. 36

Benthic habitat ..................................................................................................... 37

Fish and spawning grounds ................................................................................ 40

Proposals for new areas with particular consideration to high nature values .... 43

Effects on ground, soil, water, air, climate, landscape, settlement and cultural

environment ..................................................................................................................... 43

Water and air ....................................................................................................... 43

Climate ................................................................................................................ 47

Landscape ........................................................................................................... 53

Cultural environment ........................................................................................... 59

Management with water, land and the physical environment in general ........................ 64

Energy ................................................................................................................. 64

Recreation ........................................................................................................... 70

Tourism ................................................................................................................ 73

Defence ............................................................................................................... 75

Shipping ............................................................................................................... 79

Commercial fishing .............................................................................................. 83

Impact assessment of marine spatial plan for the Gulf of Bothnia ......................................... 88

Impact on population and health ..................................................................................... 88

Effects on protected animal or plant species and biodiversity ........................................ 91

Birds ..................................................................................................................... 91

Bats ...................................................................................................................... 95

Marine mammals ................................................................................................. 97

Benthic habitats ................................................................................................... 99

Fish and spawning grounds .............................................................................. 102

Impact of proposals for new areas with particular consideration to high nature

values ................................................................................................................ 104

Effects on land, soil, water, air, climate, landscape, settlement and cultural environment .

........................................................................................................................... 106

Water and air ..................................................................................................... 106

Climate .............................................................................................................. 109

Landscape ......................................................................................................... 113

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Cultural environment ......................................................................................... 116

Effects on the management of water, soil and the physical environment in general .... 126

Energy extraction .............................................................................................. 126

Recreation ......................................................................................................... 135

Tourism .............................................................................................................. 141

Defence ............................................................................................................. 142

Shipping ............................................................................................................. 142

Commercial fishing ............................................................................................ 147

Reindeer husbandry .......................................................................................... 151

Overall assessment Gulf of Bothnia .............................................................................. 153

Nature and ecological aspects .......................................................................... 153

Recreation, cultural environment and landscape .............................................. 153

Energy extraction, shipping and commercial fishing ......................................... 154

Aggregated assessment of energy areas ......................................................... 154

Assessment scenarios show potential distribution of cumulative effects ......... 155

Cross-border cumulative effects ....................................................................... 158

Impact assessment of marine spatial plan for the Baltic Sea ............................................... 160

Impact on population and health ................................................................................... 160

Effects on protected animal or plant species and biodiversity ...................................... 162

Birds ................................................................................................................... 162

Bats .................................................................................................................... 163

Marine mammals ............................................................................................... 163

Benthic habitats ................................................................................................. 164

Fish and spawning grounds .............................................................................. 164

Impact of proposals for new areas with particular consideration to high nature

values ................................................................................................................ 165

Effects on land, soil, water, air, climate, landscape, settlement and cultural environment .

........................................................................................................................... 167

Water and air ..................................................................................................... 167

Climate .............................................................................................................. 168

Landscape ......................................................................................................... 169

Cultural environment ......................................................................................... 171

Effects on the management of water, soil and the physical environment in general .... 178

Energy extraction .............................................................................................. 178

Recreation ......................................................................................................... 182

Tourism .............................................................................................................. 186

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Defence ............................................................................................................. 187

Shipping ............................................................................................................. 187

Commercial fishing ............................................................................................ 189

Overall assessment of the Baltic Sea ............................................................................ 191

Nature and ecological aspects .......................................................................... 191

Recreation, cultural environment, landscape and tourism ................................ 191

Energy extraction, shipping and commercial fishing ......................................... 191

Cross-border cumulative effects ....................................................................... 192

Impact assessment of marine spatial plan for Skagerrak/Kattegat ...................................... 194

Impact on population and health ................................................................................... 194

Effects on protected animal or plant species and biodiversity ...................................... 197

Birds ................................................................................................................... 197

Bats .................................................................................................................... 200

Marine mammals ............................................................................................... 202

Benthic habitats ................................................................................................. 205

Fish and spawning grounds .............................................................................. 209

Impact of proposals for new areas with particular consideration to high nature

values ................................................................................................................ 211

Effects on land, soil, water, air, climate, landscape, settlement and cultural environment .

........................................................................................................................... 214

Water and air ..................................................................................................... 214

Climate .............................................................................................................. 217

Landscape ......................................................................................................... 219

Cultural environment ......................................................................................... 222

Effects on the management of water, soil and the physical environment in general .... 232

Energy extraction .............................................................................................. 232

Recreation ......................................................................................................... 240

Tourism .............................................................................................................. 246

Defence ............................................................................................................. 248

Shipping ............................................................................................................. 248

Commercial fishing ............................................................................................ 251

Overall assessment Skagerrak/Kattegat ....................................................................... 259

Nature and ecological aspects .......................................................................... 259

Recreation, cultural environment and landscape .............................................. 259

Energy extraction, shipping and commercial fishing ......................................... 260

Aggregated assessment of energy areas ......................................................... 261

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Assessment scenarios show potential distribution of cumulative effects ......... 262

Cross-border cumulative effects ....................................................................... 266

Results and conclusions ....................................................................................................... 268

Assessment against the Marine Strategy Framework Directive and the Water

Framework Directive ...................................................................................................... 268

Plankton communities and pelagic environments ............................................. 268

Fish .................................................................................................................... 269

Seabirds ............................................................................................................ 271

Marine mammals ............................................................................................... 272

Benthic habitats ................................................................................................. 274

Hydrographic conditions .................................................................................... 275

Underwater noise .............................................................................................. 276

Alien species ..................................................................................................... 277

Other effects ...................................................................................................... 278

Fulfilment of Sweden's environmental quality objectives .............................................. 278

Assessment against other plans, policies and programmes ......................................... 280

Assessment of the impact of the marine spatial plan on ecosystem services .............. 283

Supportive ecosystem services ......................................................................... 283

Regulating ecosystem services ......................................................................... 283

Supplying ecosystem services .......................................................................... 284

Cultural ecosystem services ............................................................................. 284

Gulf of Bothnia ................................................................................................... 285

Skagerrak/Kattegat ............................................................................................ 286

Measures, follow-up and monitoring ..................................................................................... 287

Location ......................................................................................................................... 287

Borders of energy areas ................................................................................................ 288

Wind farm design ........................................................................................................... 288

Technological choices for construction, operation and decommissioning .................... 289

Improving and nature-based measures ......................................................................... 290

Winter navigation and offshore wind power ...................................................... 291

The impact of offshore wind power on outdoor activities, recreation and the

tourism industry ................................................................................................. 291

Offshore wind monitoring programme ............................................................... 291

Methodology .......................................................................................................................... 293

Population and health .................................................................................................... 294

Protected animal and plant species and biodiversity, bottom habitats ......................... 294

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Water and air, and other elements of the environment ................................................. 294

Climate ........................................................................................................................... 295

Landscape ..................................................................................................................... 295

Visualizations ..................................................................................................... 295

Visibility analysis ............................................................................................... 295

Other impacts on landscapes ............................................................................ 296

Cumulative and transboundary effects ............................................................. 296

Cultural environment ...................................................................................................... 297

Indirect impact – National interest in cultural heritage conservation (Chapter 3,

Section 6 of the Environmental Code) .............................................................. 297

Direct impact ...................................................................................................... 298

Indirect and direct impact – Regional value areas ............................................ 298

Other impacts on cultural environment ............................................................. 298

Cumulative and transboundary effects ............................................................. 298

Management with land, water and the physical environment, as well as with materials,

raw materials and energy .............................................................................................. 299

Energy extraction ........................................................................................................... 299

Wind and depth criteria ..................................................................................... 300

Uncertainties and limitations of the method ...................................................... 301

Recreation ...................................................................................................................... 302

Area-specific assessments – National interest for mobile recreation (Chapter 4,

Section 2 of the Environmental Code) and national interest claims for recreation

(Chapter 3, Section 6 of the Environmental Code) ........................................... 302

Accessibility ....................................................................................................... 302

Other impacts on recreation .............................................................................. 303

Cumulative and transboundary effects ............................................................. 303

Shipping ............................................................................................................. 303

Commercial fishing ............................................................................................ 304

List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... 317

List of tables ................................................................................................................................. 322

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Introduction

Marine spatial planning and objectives of the marine

spatial plans

The marine spatial plans shall show the most appropriate use of the sea. It is about providing

spatial conditions for different types of activities or protection in the sea in marine spatial

planning, from a holistic perspective. Marine spatial planning is the process by which marine

spatial plans are developed. It organises current and future activities in the sea basins in order to

achieve environmental, economic and social objectives. The adopted marine spatial plans guide

authorities and municipalities in the planning and examination of claims to use the area. Marine

spatial planning is one of several tools for the state to control and influence activities and the

environmental status of the sea.

In July 2014, the EU adopted a directive on marine spatial planning (2014/89/EU). The Directive

requires marine spatial planning to promote the sustainable development of offshore energy,

maritime transport, fisheries, aquaculture and the conservation, protection and improvement of

the quality of the environment. The ecosystem approach shall be applied in planning so that the

pressure of maritime activities on the environment is compatible with good environmental status

in accordance with the EU Marine Environment Directive, which is implemented in Sweden

through, among other things, the Marine Environment Ordinance.

The EU Marine Spatial Planning Directive was incorporated into Swedish national law in

September 2014 by a provision in the Environmental Code (Chapter 4, Section 10) on state-

owned marine spatial planning in Sweden, and in 2015 by the Marine Spatial Planning Ordinance

(2015:400), which regulates the implementation of marine spatial planning. The Environmental

Code states that the purpose of marine spatial plans shall be to contribute to long-term

sustainable development.

The Marine Spatial Planning Regulation clarifies that the design of marine spatial plans shall

contribute to good environmental status and that marine resources shall be used sustainably in

order to develop marine industries. The co-existence of different activities is an explicit goal. The

integration of industrial policy objectives, social objectives and environmental objectives aims to

provide a holistic perspective in planning. Based on this aspect, 10 planning objectives have been

developed during the previous planning process (see Fel! Hittar inte referenskälla.). The overall

objective of marine spatial planning is Good Marine Environment and Sustainable Development,

which is then supported by the other nine marine spatial planning objectives. The planning

objectives also take into account various international objectives, policy orientations, legislation

and environmental objectives.

New objectives in the planning process launched in 2022 mainly relate to increased ambition

regarding offshore areas of energy extraction. In addition to these, the marine spatial plans have

been updated on the basis of new conditions for area protection and other interests.

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Figure 1. The planning objectives and some of the overarching objectives and conditions that have formed the basis for the formulation of the planning objectives (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2024b).

Strategic environmental assessment of marine spatial

plans

Formal requirements for strategic environmental assessment of marine spatial

plans

Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) is a process aimed at integrating environmental

aspects into plans or programmes in order to promote sustainable development. The fact that a

marine spatial plan is subject to the requirement to carry out a strategic environmental

assessment pursuant to Chapter 6, Sections 1–19 of the Environmental Code derives from the

Environmental Assessment Ordinance. The work on strategic environmental assessment is

documented in an impact assessment in the form of a single document for the three marine

spatial plans.

The requirements for environmental assessment of marine spatial plans are also based on the

portal section of the Environmental Code, according to which the Code shall be applied in such a

way that:

1. protection of human health and the environment from damage and nuisance, whether caused

by pollution or other influences;

2. valuable natural and cultural environments are protected and nurtured;

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3. preserving biodiversity;

4. land, water and the physical environment are otherwise used in such a way as to ensure

good long-term management from an ecological, social, cultural and socio-economic point of

view, and

5. re-use and recycling, as well as other management of materials, raw materials and energy,

are promoted in order to achieve a circular economy.

This means that social and economic aspects also need to be included in a broad impact

assessment. This document has therefore been titled Impact Assessment, while the requirements

for Strategic Environmental Assessment have guided the work and drafting of the document.

Scope of the impact assessment

The impact assessment takes the form of a single document for the three marine spatial plans,

the effects of which are presented separately and together. The assessment of the impact of

marine spatial plans guidance is at an overall strategic level. The focus is on impacts linked to

offshore wind as the main difference from already adopted marine spatial plans in 2022 is new

proposed energy areas. Concretely, the analysis and assessment of the plan proposal has been

based on an estimate of potential impacts, second-round effects and finally the consequences

that a proposed energy area could generate in relation to other aspects and interests. According

to the requirements for a strategic environmental assessment, positive, negative, direct, indirect,

temporary, long-term and cumulative impacts that could arise from the implementation of marine

spatial plans are reasonably accounted for. The effects are described as potential as there are

uncertainties surrounding all assessments (see also Chapter 8. Methodology). The uncertainties

may be linked to evidence used in the assessment or uncertainty about the actual extent of an

effect, as well as possible second-round effects. The description of impacts, if not specifically

mentioned, does not take into account conditions and consideration measures that could limit

negative impacts when establishing offshore wind energy.

International consultation and cooperation

According to Chapter 6, Section 10 of the Environmental Code, the authority drawing up or

amending a plan must consult on the scope and level of detail of the impact assessment. A

delimitation consultation was held with a consultation period from 8 July to 10 October 2022.

Both the Espoo Convention and its Protocols and the Strategic Environmental Assessment

Directive (2001/42/EC) regulate consultation in case of transboundary significant environmental

impacts. These have been transposed into Swedish law through transposition into Chapter 6 of

the Environmental Code and the Environmental AssessmentOrdinance (2017:966). The general

requirements are to inform the countries concerned of current planning and carry out

consultations when planning proposals and environmental impact assessments have been

prepared.

Since the responsibility for consultation vis-à-vis other countries currently lies with the Swedish

Environmental Protection Agency, the Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management has

informed the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency that marine spatial planning is

considered to give rise to significant transboundary impacts. Neighbouring countries Norway,

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Denmark, Germany, Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Finland and Åland have therefore had the

opportunity to comment through a consultation process that ran from 28 November 2023 to 20

February 2024.

Current situation, zero alternative and assessment

scenarios

Current situation and zero alternative

The impact assessment examines the environmental effects of marine spatial plans with the main

focus on the plan proposals' guidance on the use of energy extraction. The consequences of

offshore wind power being established in the energy areas according to the marine spatial plans

can be seen in relation to the current situation and the zero alternative. The zero alternative shall

represent how the environment would evolve into a given year if the current plan or programme is

not implemented.

There are currently two offshore wind farms located within Sweden's marine spatial plans. The

Lillgrund wind farm in Öresund, which has been in operation since 2007, and Kårehamn off the

coast of Öland, which has been in operation since 2013.

The impact assessment is based on an assessment of the impact of marine spatial plans when

fully implemented. This means that the guidance on different uses in marine spatial plans has

been applied and put into practice. This can be considered an unreasonable assumption, but at

the same time it is relevant for decision-makers to get an overview of the overall impact and

consequences of the marine spatial plans.

The environmental effects and consequences shall be investigated in relation to a zero alternative

in accordance with Chapter 16, Section 4 of the Environmental Code. For marine spatial

planning, this applies both in terms of offshore wind power and other parameters. Seven wind

power projects within the marine spatial plans have been granted permits: Kriegers Flak (2022)

south of Skåne, Kattegatt Syd and Galene (both 2023) in Kattegat and Poseidon (2024) west off

Stenungssund in Skagerrak/Kattegat. The Storgrundet and Falkenberg wind farms have older

permits that have made changes to the application recently. The Swedish Agency for Marine and

Water Management has made the assessment that it is a reasonable assumption that both

existing and licensed offshore wind farms are included in the zero alternative. Furthermore, the

zero alternative is described in Chapter 2 under the heading conditions, current situation and

development for each assessment aspect.

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Figure 2. Shows the zero alternative in the impact assessment consisting of energy areas where there are permits to establish offshore wind power, including the already existing wind farm Lillgrund (Ö287).

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The meaning and guidance of the marine spatial plans - Level of exploitation

and realisation

Within the current planning system for offshore wind power, there are a number of uncertainties

regarding which energy areas can be realized in accordance with the plan proposal. The

uncertainties are due to several factors, worth mentioning are the secret interests of the defence,

the assessment of site-specific needs for nature protection, as well as other issues that are dealt

with in future permit applications and whether the state or the contractors should bear the cost of

cabling (see also section 6.1 of the proposed marine spatial plan). Responsible authorities

concluded early in the planning process that, within the current system, there is a need for

‘overplanning’ to enable energy extraction equivalent to 120 TWh. The plan proposals to the

Government include approximately 150 TWh of annual energy production. In the case of energy

establishment, some area and hence potential amount of energy would be lost due to safety

zones against shipping. Uncertainties also remain in relation to, among other things, defence

interests and nature considerations. Full deployment as planned is therefore relatively unlikely. In

the impact assessment, it is the full expansion that is assessed as it is in accordance with the

guidance of the marine spatial plan and in line with the target of 120 TWh of annual energy

production.

Assessment scenarios

According to the Environmental Code, a strategic environmental assessment must contain

reasonable alternatives taking into account; the geographical scope and purpose of the plan.

During the various stages of the planning process, the Swedish Agency for Marine and Water

Management has assessed reasonable alternatives in the planning. Prior to the consultation, the

proposals for the marine spatial plan included alternative energy areas. The impact assessment

presented the effects of energy areas and alternative energy areas. The aim was to show

different possibilities in planning when it comes to choosing energy areas in the different marine

spatial plans.

At the review stage, most of the consultation's alternative energy areas had become energy

areas in the plan. In the impact assessment, alternative plan proposals were developed to show

different potential outcomes within the target of 120 TWh based on different aspects.

Prior to submission to the Government, the Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management

has developed scenarios to discuss potential cumulative consequences that may arise from the

application of the marine spatial plan. The scenarios do not correspond to planning choices, but

show the energy areas that have the least negative impact on the respective interests. The

energy areas that have the greatest negative impact on commercial fishing and shipping have

been removed in the scenario “Fishing and Shipping” and the energy areas that have the greatest

negative impact on cultural environments, recreation and ecological aspects have been removed

in the scenario “Culture and Nature”, and in the scenario “Energy” all energy areas are included.

There is no assessment of how likely an individual scenario is, but the function of the scenarios is

to illustrate how the marine spatial plans could potentially be applied, with a particular focus on

consequences for different interests. The purpose of the scenarios is to be able to reason in the

impact assessment about the potential distribution of cumulative effects in relation to different

outcomes, and compare with both the baseline option and the marine spatial plan proposal as a

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whole. They also show what an application of the marine spatial plans could have looked like

taking into account different interests.

The marine spatial plans’ relation to other plans and

programmes

Under Chapter 6, Section 11 of the Environmental Code, an environmental impact assessment

must contain a summary of the main purpose of the plan and its relationship with other relevant

plans and programmes. Marine spatial plans shall aim at sustainable development and shall be

based on objectives and strategies at local, regional, national and international level. The

selection of plans, programmes and other processes presented in this section is mainly based on

their relevance for marine spatial planning, with a focus on new areas for offshore energy

production.

National interests, policy documents and spatial planning

1.4.1.1. National interests

National interests are geographical areas that have been identified as nationally significant. The

marine spatial plan proposal shall comply with the provisions for the management of land and

water areas as set out below:

National interest claims under Chapter 3 of the Environmental Code (to be reported by national

interest authorities)

o Includes, among other things, national interest claims for commercial fishing, nature

conservation and outdoor activities, cultural environment conservation, facilities for

energy production and electricity distribution, facilities for communications, and

defence facilities. Authorities that provide information on the respective national

interest claims are listed in Section 2 of the Ordinance on Land and Water

Management.

National interests under Chapter 4 of the Environmental Code (listed directly in the Act)

o Applies to larger areas with great natural and cultural values as well as values for

recreation that are in their entirety nationally significant. This includes coastal areas

and Natura 2000 sites (listed in a specific order).

Marine spatial plans shall guide uses of the sea. The guidance is based on an assessment of the

most appropriate use taking into account the nature, location and needs of the sites and the

overall purpose of the plans. Assessment is made on the basis of national interests, national

interest claims and other public interests of substantial importance.

1.4.1.2. Connection to the transmission network

Svenska Kraftnät is currently working on developing the process for actors who want to connect

offshore wind power to the onshore transmission grid. In these zones, Svenska Kraftnät will

prepare one or more connection points, the positioning and capacity of which will then be

communicated to all stakeholders via stakeholder pools. An offer of connection is made to the

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operator(s) who first obtains the necessary permits for the construction and operation of a wind

farm in the respective zone (Svenska Kraftnät, 2024a).

1.4.1.3. Strategy for sustainable development,maritime strategy and EU strategies

According to the Marine Spatial Planning Regulation, proposals for marine spatial plans must be

designed in such a way that the plan integrates industrial policy objectives, social objectives and

environmental objectives. The National Strategy for Regional Sustainable Development 2021-

2030 sets out a number of strategic areas and priorities in terms of industrial policy objectives,

social objectives and environmental objectives. The national strategy guides the direction of

regional development strategies and directs state funds for regional development work. The

major societal challenges that permeate the national strategy for sustainable regional

development are: environmental problems and climate change, demographic change, and

widening gaps nationally and within the EU. The strategic area considered most relevant for

marine spatial planning is Equal opportunities for housing, work and welfare in the entire country,

which includes ‘good spatial planning’. Urban planning shall promote a social structure that

contributes to sustainable habitats, reduced climate impact, as well as the preservation of

biodiversity and ecosystem services in a changing climate. Another strategic area of relevance for

marine spatial planning is Accessibility throughout the country through digital communication and

the transport system (Government, 2021b).

In 2015, the Government adopted a national maritime strategy for Sweden. The strategy aims to

achieve the government’s vision of ‘Competitive, innovative and sustainable maritime industries

that can contribute to increased employment, reduced environmental impact and an attractive

living environment’. The strategy touches upon a number of policy areas related to the sea,

regional development, business and the environment, thereby contributing to the implementation

of a Swedish integrated maritime policy. The strategy highlights marine spatial plans as an

important instrument for steering development in Swedish waters. For example, by indicating the

most appropriate use for different sea basins, marine spatial plans and environmental

assessment promote safety at sea in line with the strategy, so as to minimise risks to humans,

fauna and flora from accidents. A number of indicators have been developed for follow-up and a

number of follow-ups have been carried out (the Swedish Agency for Marine and Water

Management, 2023). Work is currently underway to update the maritime strategy.

For Sweden, the EU Strategy for the Baltic Sea Region is relevant, which aims to strengthen

cooperation to jointly address challenges and opportunities. The three overarching objectives of

the strategy are: Save the marine environment, Connect the region, and Increase prosperity. The

strategy includes an action plan, which includes the policy areas of spatial and maritime spatial

planning (PA Planning), and energy (PA Energy). The Baltic Sea Strategy contributes to the

implementation of the 2030 Agenda, but also of the EU's so-called Green Deal. The Green Deal

aims at a transition to a modern, resource-efficient and competitive economy, and together with

other wills includes an industrial transition for a climate-neutral EU by 2050. According to the

Baltic Sea Strategy, alignment with the Green Deal requires integrating climate action and the

promotion of sustainable development into all policy areas of the Strategy. Swedish marine

spatial planning is closely integrated with neighbouring countries' work in this area and its actions

under the action plan.

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In addition, at EU level, there are a number of sectoral policies relevant to marine spatial planning

in the policy areas of climate and energy, transport, fisheries, outdoor activities, and security and

defence. Both the EU Blue Economy Strategy and the Offshore Renewable Energy Strategy and

the European Wind Power Action Plan are working towards the implementation of the EU Green

Deal (European Commission, 2021 and 2023; European Parliament, 2022). In addition, there is

also the REPowerEU plan, which aims to reduce the use of fossil energy, diversify energy use

and produce more fossil-free energy within the EU. The EU has agreed on new additions to the

Renewable Energy Directive (EU/2018/2001) that will change the planning conditions for

renewable energy. The Swedish Energy Agency has been commissioned to map areas suitable

for fossil-free electricity production. The amendment includes systems for the designation of land

and sea areas for energy production (including environmental assessment), and that installations

for the production of renewable energy shall be considered to be of overriding public interest. The

implementation of the proposal could have an impact on both marine spatial planning and

environmental assessment processes. Earlier planning will be the basis for a mapping of possible

sites for renewable energy, and some sites will also be identified as acceleration zones where the

requirements for environmental impact assessment are lowered. According to the directive, the

marine spatial plan should serve as a basis for the national mapping.

1.4.1.4. Regional development strategies

According to Ordinance (2017:583) on regional development, each region must prepare so-called

regional development strategies (RUS). According to the regulation, the national strategy for

sustainable regional development throughout the country 2021-2030 (Regeringen, 2021b) should

guide regional development work. Regional development strategies shall be well-anchored locally

and regionally, and shall be developed in collaboration with the municipalities, regions, county

administrative boards and other relevant state authorities. These strategies contain visions, goals

and long-term priorities for development in each county, and provide a comprehensive picture of

the region's perspective on sustainable development. Taking into account sectoral claims and

assets, these strategies are relevant for marine spatial planning. Regional development strategies

also guide inter-municipal planning and municipal comprehensive plans.

1.4.1.5. Municipal and regional planning

According to the Planning and Building Act (2010:900), each municipality must have an up-to-

date master plan covering the entire municipality, including the sea area (inland waters and

territorial sea) within the municipality’s boundaries. Through the Marine Spatial Planning

Ordinance, municipalities and the state have geographically overlapping planning responsibilities

in most of the territorial sea. This means that differences between municipal and state planning

interests in the overlapping zone may arise, which is a challenge for state and municipal planning

to manage through collaboration and dialogue. Through good collaboration, future conflicts

between the planning levels can be minimized. State marine spatial plans can also help to

develop and strengthen the planning of coastal zones and territorial seas by municipalities.

A municipality can also control the supply, distribution and use of energy. According to the Act

(1977:439) on municipal energy planning, each municipality must have an up-to-date plan for the

supply, distribution and use of energy in the municipality. In its planning, the municipality shall

promote energy management and promote a safe and sufficient supply of energy.

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For the management of cross-municipal issues such as infrastructure, climate and housing

supply, spatial planning also takes place at regional level. A regional plan should provide the

basic features for the use of land and water areas, and aims to facilitate municipal and other

planning. The regional plan is not binding, but must be indicative of comprehensive and detailed

plans and area regulations. According to the Planning and Building Act (PBL), regional planning

is to be carried out in the counties of Stockholm and Skåne, while in the other counties it is

voluntary. The regional plan is relevant to marine spatial planning based on its spatial planning

and the link between sea and land, for example in terms of infrastructure and climate.

Environmental and climate objectives

1.4.2.1. National environmental objectives

Sweden's environmental goals system includes a generational goal, 16 environmental quality

goals, and 16 milestones. The generational goal is overarching for Swedish environmental policy,

which in turn should guide environmental work at all levels of society. To the generational goal

there are a number of so-called indents that clarify the meaning of the goal and what

environmental policy should focus on. The indents that are particularly relevant for marine spatial

planning are:

• Ecosystems have recovered, or are recovering, and their ability to generate long-term

ecosystem services is secured.

• Biodiversity and the natural and cultural environment are preserved, promoted and used

sustainably.

• Human health is exposed to minimal negative environmental impacts while the positive

impact of the environment on human health is promoted.

• The share of renewable energy is increasing and energy use is efficient with minimal impact

on the environment.

Of the 16 Swedish environmental quality objectives, the following are most central to marine

spatial planning: Sea in balance and living coast and archipelago, Limited climate impact, Non-

toxic environment, No eutrophication, A rich plant and animal life, and A good built environment.

The environmental quality objectives are described in a number of specifications, some of which

are particularly relevant for marine spatial planning. This applies, for example, to ecosystem

services, favourable conservation status, endangered species, green infrastructure, the protection

of recreation and the preservation of cultural and nature values. Clarifications on good

environmental status under the Marine Environment Ordinance (2010:1341) and good chemical

and ecological status under the Water Management Ordinance (2004:660) are also important for

marine spatial planning.

1.4.2.2. Climate policy at national and EU level

In 2017, Sweden adopted a climate policy framework consisting of a Climate Act (2017:720),

climate objectives and a climate policy council. The Climate Act requires the Government to

conduct a policy based on the climate objectives and to report regularly on developments.

Sweden has a long-term climate target of zero net emissions of greenhouse gases by 2045,

before achieving negative emissions thereafter. The target means that greenhouse gas emissions

from Swedish territory will be at least 85 per cent lower by 2045 than emissions in 1990. The

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remaining emissions (down to zero) are achieved through so-called accompanying measures. In

order to reach the target, the capture and storage of carbon dioxide of fossil origin may also be

counted as a measure where reasonable alternatives are lacking (Swedish Environmental

Protection Agency, 2024c). The Government has also adopted an action plan containing concrete

measures for how Sweden can achieve both national and international climate targets

(Government letter, 2023/24:59). Climate adaptation work relates to marine spatial planning

through work on increased preparedness and risk and vulnerability analyses in accordance with

Ordinance (2018:1428) on authorities' climate adaptation work, but also on the basis of the

national climate adaptation strategy (Government Bill 2017/18:163) with the priority biological and

ecological effects.

The EU’s 2050 climate neutrality objective is in line with international commitments under the

Paris Agreement. Through the Regulation on a European Climate Law, the political ambition to

achieve the climate targets by 2050 becomes a legal obligation for the EU and through its

adoption, Member States commit to reducing net greenhouse gas emissions by 55% by 2030

(European Council, 2021a). The EU strategy to achieve these objectives is the Green Deal (see

section 1.3.1.3) and the so-called Fit for 55 package is expected to put this into practice. The

package includes a set of proposals for the revision of climate, energy and transport-related

legislation and new legislative initiatives to align Union law with the EU’s climate objectives. The

EU Strategy on Adaptation to Climate Change (European Council, 2021b) and its actions, such

as the collection and sharing of data and knowledge, as well as objectives to promote nature-

based solutions to strengthen climate resilience and ecosystems are also relevant for marine

spatial planning.

1.4.2.3. EU directive for the marine and aquatic environment

The EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive (2008/56/EC) aims to achieve good environmental

status in the EU's marine areas and is implemented in Swedish legislation through the Marine

Environment Ordinance (2010:1341). For Swedish sea areas, the Swedish Agency for Marine

and Water Management has decided in regulations (HVMFS 2012:18) on what characterises

good environmental status and established environmental quality standards with indicators. The

Agency has also established an environmental monitoring programme and an action programme.

Marine spatial planning supports the implementation of marine environmental management

primarily through spatial planning that promotes good environmental status. The work in marine

management also takes place through regional agreements such as HELCOM (Helsinki

Convention) with an action plan for the Baltic Sea, and its counterpart in the North-East Atlantic,

OSPAR (Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic).

The EU Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC) also has some links to marine spatial planning

based on land-based activities, water resources and potential indirect well-to-sea pressures and

uses. The Directive is implemented in Sweden through the Water Management Ordinance

(2004:660) and has correspondingly objectives for the environmental status of freshwater and

coastal areas. Sweden's five water authorities decide on management plans, environmental

quality standards and programmes of measures.

1.4.2.4. Biodiversity work

The Swedish work to strengthen biodiversity, combat climate change and promote sustainable

use includes a number of tools. Some of these are marine area protection, regional action plans

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for green infrastructure, counteracting physical impacts on the aquatic environment, restoration,

measures for endangered species, counteracting invasive alien species, and regulations in

fisheries. The national work is mainly based on the implementation of the EU Birds and Habitats

Directives (2006/147/EC and 92/43/EEC respectively), the EU Biodiversity Strategy for 2030 and

the EU's Common Fisheries and Agricultural Policy. The role of marine spatial planning in this is

about spatial guidance and trade-offs regarding, for example, commercial fishing and the

protection of nature values.

The EU Biodiversity Strategy (European Commission, 2020) includes a long-term plan for the

protection and restoration of nature and ecosystems, including a target of protecting at least 30%

of the marine area by 2030. Of this 30%, 10 percentage points shall be strictly protected. The

strategy also includes measures for invasive alien species and endangered species, as well as

requirements for Member States to develop national commitments for protection and restoration.

As part of the strategy work, the European Commission presented a proposal for a Nature

Restoration Regulation in June 2022, which entails, among other things, the restoration of 20% of

the sea by 2030, the European Parliament adopted the Restoration Regulation in February 2024

and it is now up to subsequent instances to take the regulation further.

Furthermore, the strategy requires Member States to ensure that at least 30% of all species and

habitats that are currently not in favourable status fall into that category or show strong positive

trends. The Commission will also request Member States to ensure by 2030 that there is no

deterioration in the conservation trends and status of any of the habitats and species protected

under the Birds and Habitats Directives (for marine environments also EUNIS). Marine spatial

planning supports the implementation of these directives and strategies through the spatial

guidance provided by marine spatial plans on the use of the sea.

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Terminology and definitions

Use is a term for the types of activities or interests categorised in marine spatial plans: electricity

transmission, energy extraction, investigation area energy extraction, recreation, defence, general

use, cultural environment, nature, sand extraction, investigation area sand extraction, shipping,

investigation area shipping and commercial fishing.

Pressure is the change in physical conditions resulting from the implementation of the plan (e.g.

use of an area, turbidity or noise).

Effect or impact is the change in the environment caused by a pressure on an ecosystem

component (habitat or individual flora and fauna). Impacts can be direct or indirect, cumulative,

positive or negative, long or short term and give rise to consequences (see below).

The ecosystem approach is a strategy for the conservation of nature values, sustainable use

and equitable distribution of natural resources. It aims to take into account both environmental,

social and economic contexts and a more integrated management methodology. The approach

includes a number of guiding principles (the Malawi principles), including the principle of ensuring

that the use of ecosystems takes place within their boundaries (Convention on biological

diversity, 2007). The implementation of strategic environmental assessment and the integration of

environmental considerations into marine spatial planning is part of the application of the

ecosystem approach.

Ecosystem components in Symphony are habitats, species or groups of animals and plants that

constitute a part of marine ecosystems.

Ecosystem services are the products and services of nature's ecosystems that contribute to

human well-being and welfare. The concept helps to systematize the link between ecology and

society and makes it clear that well-functioning ecosystems are important for society, health and

welfare.

Climate neutrality means that greenhouse gas emissions are net zero.

Consistency is the importance of effects from an environmental and social perspective.

Environmental aspects are the aspects described in Chapter 6 of the Environmental Code, with

regard to which the environmental assessment is made.

An environmental impact assessment is the written report that identifies, describes and

assesses, among other things, the likely significant environmental effects of implementing the

plan, programme or amendment.

Strategic environmental assessment of plans and programmes is the process underlying the

environmental impact assessment. It contains certain elements that authorities and municipalities

must implement when establishing or amending certain plans or programmes whose

implementation is likely to have significant environmental effects (Chapter 6 of the Environmental

Code).

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Instructions for reading

This Impact Assessment is divided into eight chapters. After this introductory chapter, chapter two

describes the current situation, conditions and environmental effects, as well as the impact linked

to offshore wind power for all assessment criteria and interests. Chapters three, four and five

follow with a description of the expected effects of the marine spatial plans for the Gulf of Bothnia,

the Baltic Sea and Skagerrak/Kattegat, respectively. Chapter 6 compiles the assessments for

each marine spatial plan in relation to the assessment criteria under the Marine Strategy

Framework Directive and the Water Framework Directive. The chapter also contains analyses of

the marine spatial plans' contribution to meeting Sweden's environmental quality objectives and

targets in other policies, plans and strategies, and finally an analysis of the plan's impact on

ecosystem services. Chapter 7 proposes measures to prevent, deter, offset or remedy the

significant adverse environmental effects identified in the impact assessment. The last chapter

presents the methods used in the impact assessment.

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Conditions and environmental effects

Impact on population and health

Current situation, conditions and development

The sea and coastal areas are an important basis for the well-being and health of many people.

The ocean generates a variety of ecosystem services such as climate regulation, food and

attractive recreational environments that to varying degrees affect people's quality of life (see

Section 6.4. Ecosystem services). The ability of the ocean to deliver ecosystem services that can

directly benefit human health is highly dependent on how marine areas are used. Access to

recreational areas in the sea, or in coastal environments, can contribute positively to public health

and also have positive socio-economic effects.

All uses in marine spatial plans can generate effects that can affect human health, both directly

and indirectly. Negative health impacts can be linked to uses such as shipping, sand extraction

and defence activities that can generate noise and emissions affecting air and water quality.

Protected nature areas contribute to positive health effects when the ability of ecosystems to

generate ecosystem services is safeguarded. Fishing, both commercial and recreational, can

contribute positively to people's access to nutritious food, but there is also a problem of chemical

pollution in fish from certain areas. Risks related to the different uses can also pose health risks

to humans, such as increased risk of collisions, accidents and incidents at sea.

Climate-related health impacts are one of the biggest challenges for human health in the coming

decades (Public Health Agency of Sweden, 2024). Through regulating ecosystem services such

as climate regulation, water purification, atmospheric purification and biological remediation, the

ocean can contribute to improved conditions for tackling climate-related health effects such as

increased air pollution, increased heat waves and the spread of microorganisms (Paulsson et al.,

2024). The ocean is yet another relatively unexplored resource for health-promoting products, but

marine organisms can be an important resource for researching and producing pharmaceuticals

and other medical products.

Environmental impacts and impacts linked to offshore wind energy

Offshore wind energy deployment can affect human health in several ways, both directly and

indirectly. Knowledge of the effects of offshore wind power on human health is to some extent

limited as large-scale offshore wind power is relatively new. The health effects of onshore wind

power have been studied to a greater extent. Some of the conclusions are relevant for offshore

wind, although they are not always directly applicable given the differences between land and

sea. Onshore wind power risks being built closer to homes and other environments where people

live. Vindval’s latest synthesis report on the impact of wind power on human interests includes a

review of studies of effects on health (Bolin et al., 2021). The synthesis lifts noise, shadows and

warning lights/obstacle lighting as the main possible influence factors. More indirect health effects

from offshore wind power could result from changed opportunities for recreation and outdoor

activities, as well as an increased risk of accidents. Reduced opportunities to perform activities

that are important for both physical and mental health can lead to negative health effects (see

also section 2.4.2 Recreation). Examples of activities that may not occur are that people no

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longer feel motivated to visit a coastal area that has been exploited with wind power, or that the

offshore wind power prevents people from, for example, practicing recreational fishing, diving or

canoeing in the area.

Airborne noise and infrasound

A wind farm generates several different types of noise, both low-frequency noise and infrasound

that arise primarily from the rotation of the rotor blades, but also mechanical noise from the plant

itself. Within a wind farm, the noise level can be up to 50 dBA in the air. How the sound spreads

in the air from the parks depends, among other things, on the turbine's design and technical

specifications, but is also affected by weather conditions and natural conditions. Generally

speaking, sound spreads well over the sea, but there are limited studies on the noise impact of

large offshore wind turbines. In Sweden, the guideline value for wind power noise is 40 dBA at

homes, and 35 dBA in areas where the soundscape is particularly important and natural sounds

dominate (Naturvårdsverket, 2020). The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency carried out

an analysis of the sound environment in Sweden’s nature areas, which shows that the existing

offshore wind turbines are a source of noise, but the sound level decreases within a few

kilometres of the parks and does not affect the soundscape on the coast (Swedish Environmental

Protection Agency, 2024). The infrasound generated by wind turbines is considered to be very

low in relation to other sources, and according to Bolin et al. (2021) there is currently no scientific

evidence that infrasound from wind farms leads to direct or indirect health problems. However,

the offshore wind farms planned today are larger than already existing, both in terms of the

number and size of turbines, which means that studies on the spread and impact of noise are an

important aspect of future environmental assessments for specific offshore wind projects.

Shading and obstacle lighting

Shadows from wind turbines can be perceived as disturbing (Bolin et al., 2021). Studies in this

area focus mainly on onshore wind power and shading in the vicinity of residential areas, and the

phenomenon is less relevant for offshore wind power as people rarely stay in offshore wind

farms. When it comes to shading, the National Board of Housing, Building and Planning (2009)

states that it is difficult to determine the limit for which distance shadows from wind turbines are

perceivable. A study for the UK Department of Energy and Climate mentions a distance of ten

rotor diameters as the limit beyond which shading is not perceived as problematic (Parsons and

Brinckerhoff, 2011). For modern works with a total height of 350 m and a rotor diameter of 320-

330 metres, this means a boundary distance of 3.2 to 3.3 kilometres.

Wind turbines shall be equipped with warning lights, known as obstacle lighting. The purpose of

obstacle lighting is to avoid collisions with air and sea traffic. According to Transportstyreslen’s

regulations, turbines higher than 150 m must be equipped with a high-intensity white flashing

light, and internal or lower wind turbines can be equipped with a medium-intensity red light

(Transportstyrelsen, 2020:88). Obstacle lighting can be perceived as disturbing to people.

However, research in the field has not yet clarified the relationship between exposure to obstacle

lighting and possible health problems, such as sleep disturbances (Bolin et al. 2021). Obstacle

lighting can be perceived as more disturbing in sparsely populated areas where other artificial

light is rare, or absent altogether. The lights flash and shine relatively brightly (Odell et al., 2022).

Wind turbines usually have synchronised lighting, which can amplify the perceived disturbance.

Furthermore, the cumulative aspect of wind power installations can be assumed to affect people's

experiences. For example, if wind turbines dominate a coastline and several parks are visible at

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the same time, the effect may be more noticeable. In other countries, regulations on obstacle

lighting for wind power differ, and the lighting is adapted to avoid disturbing people (Odell et al.,

2022).

Distribution of health impacts – individual experience and generational aspect

Effects of wind power on human health also have a psychological dimension that is influenced by

individual differences such as attitude towards wind power, personality and age (Bolin et al.2021;

Poulsen et al., 2019). Research has shown that individuals who experience an unfair

establishment process of wind power, negative impact on landscapes or other disturbances can

experience psychological discomfort from wind power establishments, which in the long term can

lead to ill health. This negative effect from wind power is very subjective, and the opposite may

also apply, that is, some individuals in the population experience positive health effects linked to

the psychological dimension. The parts of the population that experience the effects of wind

power installations are, on the one hand, the people who live or stay on the coast, as well as

people who for various reasons are at sea, such as fishermen, sailors or recreationists (see

section 2.4.2 Outdoor activities). A wind farm can be expected to operate between 25-30 years

and an environmental permit can be valid for up to 40 years, therefore there is also a generational

aspect to take into account as future generations will experience the consequences and effects of

possible decommissioning.

Indirect health effects due to changes in emissions

As mentioned earlier, climate-related health impacts are one of the biggest challenges for human

health in the coming decades (Public Health Agency of Sweden, 2024). In the longer term, wind

power can also have positive effects on human health through the production of renewable

energy and reduced net greenhouse gas emissions. Similarly, other positive indirect effects may

also apply to the reduction of other air pollutants such as the amount of air particles and

hydrocarbons in the urban environment, which affects air quality and health in the local and

residential environment (Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, 2024b).

Collisions and accidents

Additional aspects related to the impact of offshore wind energy are a potential increased risk of

collisions and accidents, which can affect the safety and security of people at sea. Fixed

installations at sea mean that there is a risk of collision and allision. Accidents at wind farms with

the risk of incremental spillage of fuel, oil and other chemicals can be difficult to manage (see

also Section 2.4.4. Defence, and 2.4.5. Shipping). Currents can cause distressed people and

ships to drift into the park, including breakdowns by aircraft. Wind turbines affect the ability of

rescue resources to operate in and around the park area. The Swedish Transport Agency and the

Swedish Maritime Administration have described the importance of carrying out a risk analysis as

part of the licensing process to manage possible accident risks (Swedish Maritime Administration

and Swedish Transport Agency, 2023).

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Impact during construction, operation and decommissioning

Table 1. Shows the type of direct and local impact from offshore wind power in different phases in relation to the impact on population and health, as well as possible consideration measures.

Phase Type of impact Possible consideration measure

Facility Noise

Risk of spreading contaminants in sediments

Wind farm location

Operation and maintenance

Visual impact turbines

Visual impact obstacle lighting

Risk of collision

Noise

Location of wind turbines

Height of wind turbines

Clear safety distances

Settlement Noise

Increased traffic

No specific measure

Effects on protected animal or plant species and

biodiversity

Birds

Current situation, conditions and development

Swedish sea areas are some of the most important areas for birds in the world. Many seabirds

with breeding areas in northern Scandinavia and western Russia including the Arctic and

northeast Atlantic have the Baltic Sea and Kattegat as some of the central wintering areas. For

many more species, sea areas provide passages for further migration to resting and wintering

areas along the coasts of Western Europe and further south to the Mediterranean and Africa.

Also many terrestrial birds with large recruitment areas in northwestern Russia and northern

Scandinavia follow the same routes. In total, the movements involve several hundred million birds

annually and in a few places, so-called bottlenecks, where the distance over the open sea is

small, particularly large numbers of birds are concentrated.

The most important places with very concentrated routes include the North Kvarken, the Åland

Sea, an east-west route that passes Öland and Gotland, Öresund, the northern Jutland-Bohus

coast and the Grenå-Anholt-Halland coast. The ranges at these sites differ somewhat in terms of

the number of birds, how concentrated the routes are and which species have their main routes

there.

Different species also have different migration processes and different migration biology where,

for example, the time of passage varies, if the birds move during the day or night, if they move in

flocks or single on a broad front, if they use thermals or fly actively, if they move at high altitude or

low, etc. These different factors also affect how sensitive different species are to wind power.

The different sea areas differ with respect to the bird fauna and when in the year the birds stay

there. In the Bothnian Bay and the Bothnian Sea there are coastal nesting birds that, to varying

degrees, can also use water areas further out to sea, for example within designated energy

areas. Characteristic species are common eider, velvet scoter, red-breasted merganser, black

- 33 -

guillemot, razorbill, common guillemot, european herring gull, lesser black-backed gull, arctic tern,

red-throated loon and white-tailed eagle. The Bothnian Bay is normally ice-covered in winter as

well as large parts of the Bothnian Sea and therefore it is only in the southern areas that there are

some wintering areas of importance, mainly Finngrunden. Migrating birds are believed to move

throughout the sea area, but there are some places where higher concentrations occur. One is

particularly extensive in the spring and takes place from the Dalälven water system where the

birds move out over the southern Bothnian Sea, presumably quite wide in a northeasterly

direction towards the mainland coast of Finland and continues further northeast. In relation to the

energy areas, it is mainly those around Finngrunden that are supposed to be affected to a large

extent by these stretch movements. The other known route follows the coast and is supposed to

be extended by the furthest north and pass, among other things, Haparanda archipelago.

The proper Baltic Sea, with its very varied environments, is extremely important for both breeding,

resting and wintering birds. Many coastal nesting birds can be found in the archipelagos where

great cormorants, common eiders, gulls, terns, merguses, white-tailed eagle, and guillemots are

distinctive. The shallow embankments are of international importance and for some species such

as the long-tailed duck, significant parts of the global populations are found there. Karlsöarna

islands are the only areas with rocky cliffs in the Baltic Sea where large parts of the Baltic Sea

populations of common guillemot and razorbills breed. Since the guillemots regularly use a zone

of 50 km or more around the colonies, this means that large areas between Öland and Gotland

and north are sensitive to disturbance of various human activities. Extensive movements are also

taking place in connection with the migration of the guillemots to wintering areas mainly in the

southern Baltic Sea.

The most important migration routes in the Baltic Sea pass through the southern parts of Öland

and Gotland and further along the coast of Blekinge and south where virtually the entire coast of

Skåne is affected with the highest concentrations across the Sound.

At more coastal areas there are many important wintering areas that are mainly used by diving

ducks, swimming ducks, great cormorants and seagulls.

Skagerrak/Kattegat has rich bird communities linked mainly to archipelagos in the north and

islands further south. Diving ducks, swimming ducks, arctic skua, waders, terns and seagulls are

typical in these areas. Out in the open sea in areas in and around the embankments Stora and

Lilla Middelgrund and Fladen there are some of the most important wintering areas for razorbills

in the world, but also of great importance for common guillemots and black-legged kittiwake.

Several of the species exploit very large sea areas and originate from nesting stocks in large

parts of the northeast Atlantic, including the British Isles and the Norwegian coast. In winter, there

are large concentrations of seabirds along the coasts.

Variations in bird populations have several causes that are often different in the different habitats

of the species. It is therefore generally difficult to identify the factor that is most important for the

development of a particular stock. Among the uses that the marine spatial plan guides, it is

primarily recreation, fishing, shipping and energy extraction that risk having a negative impact on

bird populations.

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Environmental impacts and impacts linked to offshore wind energy

Fact-based data on mortality, barrier effects or displacement effects caused by offshore wind

power in Swedish waters is limited as only one of the existing wind power plants consists of a

larger number of turbines. The large wind farms that are now being planned offshore therefore do

not correspond in many respects to the small farms where some knowledge has been built up

through multiannual studies. Studies in other countries and regions include both studies based on

displacement observations but also modelling studies, many of which are from

Skagerrak/Kattegat region. The studies have, among other things, generated knowledge about

which species are sensitive to displacement. Empirically based knowledge of collision mortality

appears to be lacking at present for offshore wind power and mortality assumptions are based

entirely on mathematical modelling. There are many uncertain variables relating to collision

mortality, which means that conclusions based on modelling are currently very uncertain. Barrier

effects have been studied in isolated cases and in some cases indicate a strong reaction where,

for example, birds of prey turn around when they reach the wind farm, but it is unclear whether

the birds can pass through in another way. The overall state of knowledge indicates that offshore

wind power can have significant negative effects on certain disturbance-sensitive species

foraging or resting at sea and for the most sensitive species, the disturbance may cover

significantly larger areas than the wind farm itself. For some other species the impact appears to

be very low or none at all, and for some other species these may also be attracted by offshore

wind farms, such as cormorants and seagulls that can use the foundations as resting places

(Leemans & Collier, 2022; Bergström et al., 2021; Rydell et al., 2017). In addition, in order to

draw conclusions about the effects of wind power on bird populations, much more knowledge is

often required, which also includes other influence factors and how different dynamic effects act

in time and space that can compensate or add to the impact of wind power. Uncertainties mean

that power assessments are currently difficult to make and that the safest way to avoid negative

effects is not to establish wind power in the most important and sensitive areas for birds (Rydell et

al., 2017). In other areas where sensitivity is considered to be low or moderate, research

suggests that various protective measures may possibly reduce the degree of impact to

acceptable levels.

Impact during construction, operation and decommissioning

Table 2. Shows the type of impact from offshore wind power in different phases in relation to the impact on birds, as well as possible consideration measures.

Bats

Current situation, conditions and development

There are 19 bat species in Sweden, which makes up a quarter of all mammal species in

Sweden. Bats are found almost all over the country, but the number of species and density is

significantly higher in southern Sweden. According to the IUCN's criteria for redlisting, twelve bat

Phase Type of impact Possible consideration measure

Facility Low risk of impact No specific measure

Operation Displacement

Collision

Avoidance of wind power in high risk areas.

Stop control in high-risk situations.

Settlement Low risk of impact No specific measure

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species are redlisted in Sweden. Bats can be divided according to whether they are migratory or

mainly stationary, which is an important factor in relation to offshore wind power. Bats move and

hunt at night, mainly in warm and relatively still weather.

Environmental impacts and impacts linked to offshore wind energy

Risk of impact on bats linked to offshore wind power can occur primarily during migration but also

during their foraging across the sea from the coast. Bats can be killed in collisions and by

pressure changes caused by the rotor. Wind turbines can attract bats because insects can gather

there.

Relocation

There are two long-distance species in Sweden: Large brown bats/common noctule (Nyctalus

noctula) and nathusius’s pipistrelle (Pipistrellus nathusii), which move south in the autumn and

return in the spring. Migratory movements also occur in several other species, and may vary in

length, including the part-coloured bat (Vespertilio murinus) and soprano pipistrelle (Pipistrellus

pygmaeus) as well as the serotine bat (Eptesicus serotinus) and the lesser noctule (Nyctalus

leisleri).

Knowledge of bat migration is limited, but some information is available. For example, it is known

that, like many migratory birds, bats follow the coasts that form the guiding lines in the landscape,

and even when crossing the sea, they choose routes where the distances between the land

masses are as short as possible. Individual markings have shown, among other things, that

northern populations of nauthusius’s pipistrelle migrate from Finland to Sweden via North

Kvarken and further south along the coast. In the central part of the Baltic Sea, data indicate that

bats from Finland and the Baltic States either follow the coast south or fly over the open sea via

Åland or Gotland to Sweden and then further south. In southern Sweden, bats have been

observed stretching south or southwest from Gotland, Öland and Falsterbo. Migration takes place

during specific periods in spring and autumn.

Search for food

Both migratory and more stationary bat species can feed across the ocean. They can hunt

insects that are staying over water or that have drifted out of land with the winds. Hunting bats

have been found up to about 15 kilometers, in some cases even further, from the coast.

Impact during construction, operation and decommissioning

Table 3. Shows the type of impact from offshore wind power in different phases in relation to the impact on bats, as well as possible consideration measures.

Phase Type of impact Possible consideration measure

Facility Low risk of impact No action

Operation Risk of collision and damage caused by pressure changes of the rotor

Stop regulation* for high activity of bats

Settlement Low risk of impact No action

- 36 -

*Methods to reduce the risk of collisions and damage to bats can be achieved by shutting down wind turbines during critical

periods when bat activity is high. Stop regulation needs to be adapted to the conditions prevailing in the marine environment

and may differ from recommendations in the terrestrial environment.

Marine mammals

Current situation, conditions and development

An assessment of the status of the marine environment is made every six years in the Marine

Strategy for Skagerrak/Kattegat and the Baltic Sea, based on the Marine Environment Ordinance.

The latest status assessment is from 2024 (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management,

2024a).

According to the most recent assessment, none of the three seal species, harbour seal, grey seal

and ringed seal or their populations reach a good status in their respective assessment areas. As

a result, seals as a species group do not achieve good environmental status either. The reason

for not achieving good status for seal species is, among other things, that population growth has

slowed down. However, all populations, except the harbour seal in Kalmarsund, meet the

requirement that the number of individuals must be above the population size that ensures a

sufficiently high genetic variation within the population.

The distribution of the populations does not reach a good status for any of the seal species. This

is mainly due to the fact that accessible or historical sites for reproduction, foraging and resting

cannot be used by seals, for example due to reduced ice extent and the disappearance of

sandbanks. The health status of the grey seal population, measured as gestation frequency and

blubber thickness, also does not reach good status.

Grey seals in the Baltic Sea move throughout the Baltic Sea and Öresund and are therefore

considered to be a population. Knubbsäl is mainly found along the west coast down to Skåne.

Harbour seals are considered to be three distinct populations because only a few individuals are

exchanged between them; one population in Skagerrak, one population in Kattegat, Öresund and

the Arkona Basin (neither of these two stocks are limited to Swedish waters but also include seals

in Danish and Norwegian areas) and a smaller population in Kalmarsund.

Ringed seal is found in the Gulf of Bothnia, the northern Baltic Sea, the Gulf of Finland and the

Gulf of Riga. Swedish waters include an assessment of the population in the Gulf of Bothnia.

Ringed seals occurs mainly in the Bothnian Bay with population concentration in the far north of

the bay.

Sensitive times during the ringed seal's life cycle are February-May when mating, pupping,

nursing and fur replacement takes place. Establishment of offshore wind farms during this period

should therefore be avoided. There is a lack of knowledge about how areas with offshore wind

power can affect the conditions for seals, e.g. by affecting ice formation and the presence of sea

ice.

The environmental status of harbour porpoises is assessed for three different populations and is

based for all populations on an assessment of abundance and trend as well as by-catch. An

indicator reflecting distribution is also used for the Baltic Sea population. None of the three

harbour porpoise populations reach good status in their respective assessment areas. As a

- 37 -

result, harbour porpoises do not achieve good environmental status either. The reason for not

achieving good status is, among other things, that by-catch exceeds the established thresholds

for all populations. For the Belt Sea and Baltic Sea populations, good status of abundance and

trends is also not achieved while Skagerrak/Kattegat population shows stable abundance over

the period of data availability (1994-2016).

Effects and impacts linked to offshore wind power

The impact on marine mammals is mainly caused by the propagation of impulsive underwater

noise and sediment dispersion in the offshore wind construction phase. It is not entirely clear

whether the operating phase gives rise to negative effects, for example through continuous

underwater noise. Harbour porpoises are particularly sensitive to impulsive underwater noise.

Ringed seals are at risk of being affected by wind farms being able to disrupt the formation of ice,

which is a prerequisite for their reproduction.

Impact during construction, operation and decommissioning

Table 4. Shows the type of impacts from offshore wind power in different phases in relation to the impact on mammals, as well as possible consideration measures.

Phase Type of impact Possible consideration measure

Facility Impulsive noise from piling.

Sediment dispersion;

Other disturbance from construction activities e.g. continuous noise.

Noise abatement protection measures at the installation;

Operation Continuous noise

Impact on icing

No specific measures

Settlement Continuous and possibly impulsive noise and sediment dispersion.

Noise abatement protection measures

Benthic habitat

Current situation, conditions and development

The diversity of species along Sweden's coasts varies greatly, mainly due to the variation in

salinity. The number of major plant and animal species ranges from about 1,500 species in the

Skagerrak and about 800 species in the Kattegat to about 70 species in the Baltic Sea south of

Gotland. Overgrown seabeds and biogenic reefs are among the most productive and species-rich

environments. Bottoms with few but rare species can also have a high conservation value.

Biodiversity is vital for preserving the ecosystem services on which humans rely and for

maintaining the natural population composition. Both the Gulf of Bothnia and the Baltic Sea area

have significantly lower biodiversity than Skagerrak/Kattegat and are considered to be more

sensitive to changes. In Skagerrak/Kattegat there are sediment-dwelling organisms that can

increase the oxygenation of sediments and thus the binding of nitrogen, phosphorus and carbon.

This process, which reduces the effects of acidification and eutrophication, is lacking in the Baltic

Sea region. According to Artdatabanken's Red List in 2020 (Artdatabanken, u.å.), 237 marine

species and 60 brackish water species in Swedish waters are red-listed. In general, few marine

species are red-listed, which is considered to be due to a lack of knowledge about the status of

the species. This means that several marine species cannot be assessed on the basis of the red-

- 38 -

listing criteria. The changes that have taken place in the marine environment are therefore

considered to affect far more species than the red list reflects (Swedish Agency for Marine and

Water Management, 2015a). The knowledge gap is particularly high for invertebrates and algae,

and many species in these groups fall under the ‘Knowledge gap’ category of the Red List.

Generally speaking, the distribution of anoxic bottoms, large-scale climate change and the effects

of fishing are the main threats to marine species. Other important factors are environmental

toxins, exploitation of shallow areas, acidification, and predation from marine mammals and birds

(Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2022b).

The Gulf of Bothnia does not contain as many species as the other Swedish marine areas, but

most populations are prosperous. In the marine area there are both brackish and freshwater

species, where a typical benthic fauna community consists of about 10 species (Havet.nu,

2023b). Future changes in salinity levels can have a major impact on the sensitive species

composition. The stable winter ice in the outer lake forms a basis for photosynthesizing algae,

and seals need the ice for the pups to survive. As climate change reduces the extent of stable

ice, the northern parts of the Gulf of Bothnia become increasingly critical (Swedish Agency for

Marine and Water Management, 2018a).

In the Baltic Sea, marine and freshwater species live in the same habitat and are often genetically

adapted to the estuarine environment. Compared to many other seas, biodiversity in the Baltic

Sea is low. Since only a few key species form the foundation of the food web, the Baltic Sea is

particularly sensitive to human influence. Öresund is a shallow area, with flora and fauna that is a

mixture between the coastal environments of the Baltic Sea and Skagerrak/Kattegat. Benthic

habitats are dominated by marine species where salinity is high, while more brackish water

species typical of the Baltic region dominate the shallower surface layer than 10-12 m water

depth.

Large-scale climate fluctuations in recent decades have affected the Baltic Sea, making it difficult

to distinguish between natural and human factors. At the lower trophic levels, the composition of

phytoplankton has changed, which in turn has affected populations of zooplankton and copepods,

which are the main food for fish. At the same time, many underwater plants have disappeared in

exploited and polluted areas, especially in the Southern Baltic Sea. Stocks of invertebrates have

decreased both in number and in individual density, while the Baltic Sea ecosystem is considered

to have undergone a regime change, in particular regarding fish communities (Eklöf et al., 2020;

Yletyinen et al., 2016), which are affecting species dependent on fish.

Blue mussel (Mytilus edulis) is one of the most important biotope-forming species in the Baltic

Sea, as it is the dominant species on hard bottoms (Marbipp, 2018). Other particularly important

biotope-forming species are bladderwrack (Fucus vesiculosus) and eelgrass (Zostera marina). It

is of great importance to preserve and try to promote these key species. Blue mussel banks are

substrates for other organisms and therefore indicate high biodiversity. These mussel banks also

provide a regulatory ecosystem service in the form of filtration of particles in the water, which

contributes to lower turbidity in the water column. Today, the largest mussel communities are

limited to shallower bottoms and the banks are therefore of high protection value. The range of

blue mussels is limited by salinity and therefore does not extend past the Bothnian Sea.

The importance of the different key species varies in the different sea areas of the Baltic Sea. On

shallower soft bottoms in the Northern Baltic Sea and the South-Eastern Baltic Sea are eelgrass

- 39 -

and sago pondweed (Stuckenia pectinata) common and important species. In the area south of

Öland, large, dense seaweed belts of mainly toothed wrack (Fucus serratus) have been

documented. In the Southern Baltic Sea, bladderwrack and toothed wrack dominate hard bottoms

and there are also about 100 species of macroalgae, the majority of which are very rare (Swedish

Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2015a). Eelgrass dominates the soft bottoms of

Öresund. On hard bottoms there are often brown algae such as bladderwrack, which form

seaweed belts.

Skagerrak/Kattegat, with its almost ocean-like conditions, has greater biodiversity compared to

the Baltic Sea and the Gulf of Bothnia. The Skagerrak, which is deepest, has a more stable

salinity and good oxygen supply, and almost twice as many major animal and plant species as

the Kattegat. Of the macroalgae that occur in Skagerrak/Kattegat, as in the Baltic Sea, a majority

are very rare. In Skagerrak/Kattegat, a large supply of anthropogenic nutrients has led to major

changes along the coast, with sharp increases in the amount of phytoplankton and organic

particles in the water. A larger amount of particles reduces the light supply for plants and an

increased nutrient supply generally favors fast-growing algae. Long-term changes in seaweed

communities vary along the Swedish coast and in Skagerrak a decline has been going on for a

long time.

In Skagerrak/Kattegat, it is also important to preserve and promote the key species blue mussel

and Lophelia (pertusa), which are two important biotope-building species for the survival of the

ecosystems that still exist. Structure-forming species, such as Lophelia, often have a long

lifespan and low reproduction, which makes them sensitive to changes.

Eelgrass is currently an endangered species. Along the coast of Bohuslän, the area spread has

decreased by over 60% since the 1980s as a result of, among other things, eutrophication and

overfishing, which corresponds to a loss of about 12 500 ha of eelgrass (Moksnes et al., 2016).

Eelgrass grows in shallower areas and is therefore rarely found in the areas of the marine spatial

plan.

Even soft bottoms that are relatively unaffected by humans can have high protection value as

they often house endangered burrowing organisms and various species of sea pens. Sponges

are also effective filter feeders that can absorb plankton and other organic matter, spreading

mainly on hard substrates. Many invertebrates are soft-bottomed organisms and have therefore

been significantly affected by bottom trawling. Trawling is most intensive in Skagerrak and

Kattegat, followed by the Southern Baltic Sea area, making the invertebrates in these sea areas

the most vulnerable. The long-lived tall sea pen, which were previously found in

Skagerrak/Kattegat, are particularly affected by the intensive bottom trawl fishing and are

currently under threat (Artdatabanken, u.å.; Shield et al., 2021). Skagerrak/Kattegat has the

highest abundance of crustaceans, such as northern prawn, edible crab, european lobster and

Norway lobster/langoustine. These species are of great economic importance but are currently

suffering from high fishing pressure, mainly from commercial fishing (Sandström et al., 2019).

Environmental impacts and impacts linked to offshore wind energy

The bottom impact in energy areas depends on a number of factors. The type of installation used

e.g. bottom-fixed foundations or floating foundations and also the level of bottom trawling in the

area. Bottom-fixed foundations give a direct impact on the bottom covering the surface that the

total foundation takes up. With modern wind turbines that can stand up to two kilometres apart, it

- 40 -

is about 1-2% of the bottom of the park that is affected by physical loss from the plant itself.

Floating foundations require anchoring at the bottom and it is these structures and possibly

anchoring ropes/chains that can have a negative effect on benthic habitats. It is also these parts

of the foundations that are underwater and involve the addition of new hardened surfaces.

In cases where wind power replaces bottom trawling as a use in sea areas, the local net effect

can be positive through a reduced overall area-related negative disturbance/loss. The

assessment per marine spatial plan therefore includes an analysis, supported by the cumulative

impact assessment tool Symphony, of the areas in which such a positive effect is most likely to

occur.

The pressure from offshore wind power on benthic habitats is proportional to the construction

area or the size of the energy area. At the same time, the negative effect of the pressure is

dependent on the sensitivity of the seabed and existing nature values. In Symphony, an analysis

has been made of cumulative bottom effect per area in the energy areas. The results are

presented in maps showing where it becomes clear that certain energy areas produce higher

bottom pressures per area. In general, it is only when planning wind farms that a detailed location

can be carried out that takes into account the presence of sensitive and endangered species and

habitat types.

Bottom-fixed foundations and also anchorages to floating foundations mean new hardened

surfaces on which marine life can grow. Here, so-called reef effects can occur that contribute to

biodiversity and a positive effect, but they can also entail some increased risk of spreading

unwanted alien species.

Impact during construction, operation and decommissioning

Table 5. Shows the type of impact from offshore wind power in different phases in relation to the impact on benthic habitats, as well as possible consideration measures.

Phase Type of impact Possible consideration measure

Facility Physical disturbance and loss of benthic habitats

Avoidance of impacts on sensitive or protective benthic habitats

Operation Possibility of establishment of artificial reefs. Risk of spread of alien invasive species.

Adaptation of foundations/structures to provide conditions for biodiversity "nature inclusive design"

Settlement Likely loss of established artificial reefs.

Avoidance of impacts on sensitive or protective benthic habitats

Fish and spawning grounds

Current situation, conditions and development

The fish fauna in the Gulf of Bothnia consists mainly of cod, herring and european sprat, with

freshwater species such as european perch and common roach closer to the coast. Salmon, trout

and eel occur, but consist to some extent of implanted individuals. Stocks of lavaret are stable in

the Bothnian Bay, but in the Bothnian Sea, among other things, the lack of older individuals and

declining catches per effort in commercial fisheries indicate that the stock is outside biologically

safe limits. The situation of Baltic herring has received a lot of attention in recent years in

connection with several reports of declining supplies of herring along the Swedish coast,

- 41 -

especially large individuals. The low average weight of herring over the past 15 years is

estimated to be the result of, among other things, high fishing pressure, predation of the grey seal

and changes in access to food. The low average weight is one of the reasons behind the

declining spawning stock biomass. Catches of perch have been stable in exploratory fishing in

most of the Gulf of Bothnia, except in North Kvarken, where trends have been negative, also for

the number of large individuals. The situation for wild salmon in the Bothnian Bay has improved

since a couple of decades, and today shows good status, while stocks further south generally

become weaker. Reduced fishing and other measures have led to reduced mortality in recent

years, but there are concerns about disease-related mortality in several rivers. The wild sea trout

stocks have been negatively affected by a number of pressure factors such as eutrophication,

channelling, migration barriers, hydropower utilization and too low water flow in the summer, as

well as consequences of a warmer climate. The impact of fisheries on stocks is not known, which

justifies a precautionary approach to all fisheries. The vendace, which is economically the most

important species in the Bothnian Bay, has relatively stable populations despite annual variations,

although knowledge of the stock structure is considered to be limited. Predation of the seal is

estimated to be up to five times greater than the yield of the fishery (Fiskbarometern, 2022a).

The fish fauna in the Baltic Sea consists of about 50 species of fish. These are mainly saltwater

species such as cod, herring and sprat, while the more coastal areas are dominated by

freshwater species such as perch and roach, but also by flatfish. Eel occurs along the coastal

areas with the largest distribution in the southern sea areas. The stocks of salmon, trout, eel and

to some extent also lavaret, are a mixture of natural and planted fish. In the Baltic Sea, fishing

pressure has historically had a major impact on several commercially interesting species such as

cod, haddock, common sole, european plaice and pollack. The recovery is slow despite the

cessation of fishing for certain species, the removal of the trawl limit and the implementation of

other conservation measures. The status of cod is of particular concern, with recruitment of young

cod at very low levels since 2017 (Fiskbarometern, 2022b). In the Öresund area, the situation is

better, where trawl fishing has been prohibited since the 1930s, but here too the proportion of

large fish has decreased in recent years (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management,

2015a).

The composition of the fish fauna in Skagerrak/Kattegat is approximately the same as in the rest

of Skagerrak/Kattegat. About 80 marine fish species reproduce in Swedish waters and the

number of fish species generally decreases from Skagerrak towards Öresund. Cod, herring, sprat

and sandeel predominate, and on sandy and clay bottoms mostly flatfish. Eel occurs along the

entire west coast of Sweden, but more generally in the southern parts (Swedish Agency for

Marine and Water Management, 2015b). The largest eel stock in Sweden is located in the

southern Skagerrak's inland coastal area, but the abundance is high throughout the marine

spatial plan area of Skagerrak/Kattegat. The fishing community in Skagerrak/Kattegat has since

the end of the 19th century changed with a reduction of large, adult predatory fish to an

ecosystem where small and young individuals dominate. Examples of species strongly affected

by fishing pressure are cod, haddock, common sole, plaice and pollack. Recovery is slow despite

various conservation measures, and levels are not satisfactory. The cod stocks are still at such a

low level that they are considered to have reduced reproductive capacity.

Fishing is the main human impact on fish stocks, but it also results from nutrient inputs and

environmental toxins, as well as from exploitation and physical impact on habitats. Regulation of

rivers and clearings in both large and small rivers affect fish stocks and fisheries by limiting

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access to suitable spawning grounds for marine fish (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water

Management, 2015a). Other physical disturbances in the ecosystem may be due to dredging,

facilities, lost fishing gear and noise. One factor of uncertainty is how the fish's habitat and food

base are affected by climate change and the increased distribution of oxygen-poor seabeds in the

Baltic Sea. More than 20 fish species are included in the Red List for endangered species,

including cod, haddock, common ling and atlantic halibut, as well as hake and thorny skate

(Swedish Institute for the Marine Environment, 2016).

Environmental impacts and impacts linked to offshore wind energy

According to the latest synthesis of the effects of offshore wind power on fish, there is much in the

overall scientific evidence to suggest that the supply of offshore wind turbines does not pose a

threat to fish species or populations (Öhman, 2023). However, the conclusion only applies if

certain precautionary measures are introduced to minimise the pressures of offshore wind power,

in particular impulsive underwater noise and sediment dispersion. However, like other studies, the

synthesis highlights that the effects can differ significantly between different areas and that

important knowledge gaps remain (see also Hogan et al., 2023). For these reasons, wind power

establishment should be preceded by a local assessment of how fish including fish spawning may

be affected.

The question of how offshore wind power can affect salmon was raised in the consultation for the

marine spatial plans. The Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management therefore tasked

SLU Aqua with compiling the current state of knowledge based on available research on the risk

of impacts from offshore wind power on migratory salmon (Koehler et al., 2024). The assessment

is based on literature on the biology of salmon and on pressures from offshore wind power. There

are currently no wind farms where salmon is present in Swedish seas in order to study actual

effects, nor are there any studies from wind farms in other countries. According to the current

state of knowledge, the risk that migrating salmon will be adversely affected is assessed if wind

farms are built with bottom-fixed foundations with a long distance between the towers and located

in the outer lake at a not too shallow water depth (more than about 30 meters).

The risk of negative impact on migratory salmon is considered to be low even when using floating

foundations, but there the uncertainty is slightly higher. The cables that transport electricity from

floating foundations will be in the water mass and would come closer to the salmon than when

using bottom-fixed foundations. However, the magnetic field from the cables has a very limited

spread, in the order of maximum single meters. Although the risk is considered low, it is important

to conduct follow-up studies in and around the wind farms being built, with a focus on clarifying

the salmon's behaviour at the plants. If several wind farms are built, coordinated monitoring is

important in order to monitor possible cumulative effects. The purpose of the studies would be to

clarify the state of knowledge and provide an opportunity to identify the need for adaptations to

mitigate any unforeseen negative effects on a larger spatial scale, such as migration patterns.

The risks associated with sound at the installation can be reduced by means of protective

measures that reduce the intensity of the sound pressure, the area of impact and the likelihood of

fish being present in the area. There is reason to use these methods routinely and also monitor

their actual effectiveness in practice. Conditions may be included in the permit, such as that

works that cause high-intensity noise may not be carried out during certain biologically relevant

periods of time.

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Impact during construction, operation and decommissioning

Table 6. Shows the type of impacts from offshore wind power in different phases in relation to impacts on fish and spawning areas, as well as possible consideration measures that can reduce negative impacts and consequences.

Type of impact Possible consideration measure

Facility Noise and turbidity Protection measures against noise; adjustment of planting time by season (avoidance of spawning periods); Choice of foundation type and cable recess method.

Operation Noise Possibility of establishing artificial reefs that benefit fish through food availability and protection. Influence on natural magnetic field. Electromagnetic fields.

Avoidance of shallow coastal areas.

Settlement Loss of established artificial reefs. Noise and turbidity

Adjustment of settlement time by season (avoidance of spawning periods);

Proposals for new areas with particular consideration to high nature values

The plan includes a number of proposals for new areas for particular consideration of high nature

values (so-called small n-areas). These have been developed in a process together with coastal

county administrative boards and the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency. Areas with

particular consideration to high nature values can be based on existing known nature values

where the designation provides general guidance on particular consideration. They can also

complement guidance on energy extraction, highlighting the need for particular consideration in

energy realisation, e.g. in the form of protective measures for harbour porpoises or birds. The

new proposals for n-areas in this planning round are described in the respective assessment

chapters below.

Effects on ground, soil, water, air, climate, landscape,

settlement and cultural environment

Water and air

Current situation, conditions and development

The chemical and physical properties of the sea are essential for marine life. Both water

characteristics and water quality are crucial for marine species. The salinity varies greatly along

the Swedish coast, from about 30-33 PSU (practical salinity unit, measured in g/l or g/kg) in

Skagerrak to 2-4 psu in the Gulf of Bothnia. The variation in salinity means that each sea area

has unique characteristics and sets boundaries for ecosystems by affecting the range of species.

With the change in salinity comes a shift from saltwater species in Skagerrak to a dominance of

freshwater species in the Gulf of Bothnia. The salinity also varies locally from lower levels at the

shoreline, especially at river mouths, to higher levels in the open sea.

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The chemical status of Sweden's marine areas is affected by both historical and contemporary

uses, both from emission sources on land as well as emissions and activities in the sea.

Environmental monitoring shows that Sweden is still far from the target of a non-toxic

environment, although the supply of a number of environmental toxins has constantly decreased

in recent decades and the conditions for achieving that target have improved in recent years

(Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2018b; Swedish Chemicals Agency, 2022).

Since the first measurements of environmental toxins in Swedish marine areas, the levels of early

environmental toxins, such as the persistent PCBs and DDT, as well as lead, have decreased in

marine organisms thanks to success in the action work. This has contributed to the significant

recovery of several marine species such as white-tailed eagles and seals. Although the levels of

most classical environmental toxins have decreased, the National Food Agency recommends that

children, adolescents and women of childbearing age continue to eat fatty fish from the Baltic Sea

no more than two to three times a year as a result of dioxins and other environmental toxins in

this fish.

According to the latest initial assessment under the EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive, the

concentrations of most hazardous substances remain higher than the thresholds defining good

environmental status (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2024a). Particularly

worrying are the high levels of mercury and brominated diphenyl ethers, which are exceeded in

fish in coastal waters throughout Sweden and where the trend points to no or slow improvement.

Dioxins and dioxin-like contaminants remain problematic in the Baltic Sea. As the Baltic Sea

ecosystem is relatively young and species-poor, it is particularly sensitive to hazardous

substances, especially if they affect key species. Despite a downward trend in tin pollution,

endocrine disrupting effects on snails continue to occur, particularly in coastal waters of

Skagerrak/Kattegat and the Baltic Sea. Cadmium levels in embankment sediments in waters

around Gotland are also too high, which can partly be explained by the high levels in the bedrock

in the area. A growing problem globally is plastic pollution in the ocean, especially when it breaks

down into microscopic particles that can be absorbed by organisms and cause poisoning.

Illegal oil spills from ships in the Baltic Sea and Skagerrak/Kattegat, oil leaks from propeller cores

and wrecks in Skagerrak/Kattegat contribute to pollution of the Swedish sea (Swedish Marine

Environment Institute, 2014). The long tradition of industries in the Gulf of Bothnia has resulted in

many contaminated areas with high levels of environmental toxins along the coast. This has led

to concrete environmental challenges in meeting future needs for maritime dredging, energy

production and transmission. The presence of dumped weapons, wrecks or other types of

dumped material can affect water quality locally and regionally.

Since water quality, and factors such as oxygenation, salinity and temperature are a prerequisite

for life in the sea, this is an essential part of Swedish marine management. As described above,

there are many remaining challenges with the chemical status and other climate-related factors

linked to water quality in Swedish marine areas. Both water and air quality are affected by climate

change, which is expected to intensify in the coming decade (IPCC, 2023). Both warming,

acidification of seawater and increased precipitation and runoff are factors that are expected to

have a significant negative impact on water quality. More complex climate effects linked to ocean

circulation and hydrography are difficult to predict at present. In addition to climate change, it is

pressures in the form of emissions from human activities that can be expected to have the

greatest effect in the long term.

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Environmental impacts and impacts linked to offshore wind energy

Impact on hydrography

Studies have shown that the establishment of offshore wind power has some impact on

hydrography (Arneborg et al., 2024). SMHI was commissioned by the Swedish Agency for Marine

and Water Management to study the hydrographic effects of large-scale deployment of offshore

wind power. A modelling study was conducted in 2024 to investigate how offshore wind power

deployment in the Baltic Sea and Skagerrak/Kattegat affects hydrographic factors such as

temperature, salinity, currents and stratification. The results showed that an extensive expansion

of offshore wind power in the Baltic Sea in particular could cause a shallower halocline, as well as

increased salinity and temperatures in the deep water due to decreasing winds behind the wind

farms leading to reduced vertical mixing (Arneborg et al., 2024). The modelling also showed that

the wind power foundations cause a decrease in the salinity of the deep water in the Baltic Sea,

probably due to increased friction and mixing in Öresund. All wind turbines were assumed to be

bottom-fixed in the modelling, which does not correspond to what a realistic expansion would look

like.

The results of the study are based on certain assumptions, including how wind affects the sea

surface and also the extent of wind power expansion, both internationally and nationally. One of

the conclusions of the study is that there is a sensitivity to these variables and more studies are

needed to investigate how large the effects would be in terms of actual conditions for the wind

wave effect throughout the season, as well as real expansion of offshore wind power in Sweden's

neighboring areas. More studies are also needed to investigate possible second-round effects

that changes in hydrography may lead to for biochemical variables and ultimately how marine

organisms and habitats could be affected. SMHI's researchers also note in the study that

changes that could occur from offshore wind power are smaller than expected effects of climate

change, for example in terms of temperature.

The foundations could also affect waves and the movement of water downstream of the wind

farm. This may be important if the wind farm is located in the vicinity of constantly changing sandy

areas where waves and currents play a role in the design of the shoreline, which could lead to

beach erosion (Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, 2008).

Dispersion of sediments and pollutants

Sediment dispersion can occur during the construction of the foundations of wind turbines and

also during cable laying. The extent of sediment dispersion depends on several factors, including

the characteristics of the bottom material, ocean currents and technical choices at the plant

(Naturvårdsverket, 2008). In general, sediment suspension becomes more extensive in areas

where the bottom and sediment are made up of more fine-grained material, and also in areas with

more powerful currents. Sediment dispersal can lead to environmental effects such as turbidity,

which can affect lighting conditions, fish spawning and biodiversity, see Table 7 below. Detailed

modelling of expected sediment dispersion is done in the permit application for specific wind

power projects, and in the planning of construction, maintenance and decommissioning can be

taken into account to minimize negative environmental effects. The sensitivity of a species to

turbidity varies, depending, among other things, on whether the species is fixed or not and

whether it is accustomed to sedimentation (Bergström et al., 2022). Some species may also be

more sensitive to impacts during specific phases, such as spawning time and the larval stage.

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Another risk in sediment dispersion is if the sediment contains different types of contaminants,

which then risk spreading into the water column and can be absorbed by marine organisms. SGU

carries out marine environmental monitoring and mapping of the seabed within the Swedish

continental shelf area. Information on bedrock material, different sediment strengths and

formation modes, and content of organic matter and environmental toxins (Swedish Geological

Survey, 2024). The spread of environmentally hazardous substances can be prevented by

sampling and mapping of pollutants in the benthic habitat in connection with design. The

presence of environmentally hazardous wrecks, dumping sites or dumped combat materials and

ammunition in the vicinity of the site may increase the risk of spreading environmentally harmful

substances.

Some sediment dispersal also occurs during the operational phase, around foundations. This can

be prevented by laying different types of erosion protection around the foundations. Common

erosion protection consists of a layer of large-grained gravel, pebbles or other material (Hammar,

Andersson, Rosenberg, 2008).

Erosion of foundations

The spread of particles in the form of materials and chemicals from wind turbine structures both

above and below the surface occurs gradually during the operational phase and depends on

external influences from, for example, rain and wind (Pryor et al. 2022). Wind turbines consist

mostly of iron and other metals, in addition there are electronic components and the rotor blades

are made of fiberglass and plastic materials (Energy Agency 2021). It is important that the rotor

blades retain the shape for optimal conditions for energy extraction, therefore they are treated

with a protective coating. The studies carried out have not been able to demonstrate that wind

turbines are a major source spreading environmentally hazardous chemicals, such as PFAS,

Bisphenol A or microplastics (Swedish Environmental Protection Agency 2021, Wang et al.,

2018). Research is ongoing to investigate this further, including the PREMISE project at the

Technical University of Denmark (see, for example: Hasager et al.2022; Pryor and Others 2022).

The decommissioning of wind turbines is the responsibility of the companies and this is regulated

in permits for each project (Energy Authority, 2021).

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Impact during construction, operation and decommissioning

Table 7. Shows potential impacts during different phases of offshore wind on different aspects related to water, both in the short and long term, how these impacts may affect other assessment aspects, as well as possible consideration measures.

Climate

Current situation, conditions and development

Climate change is expected to affect marine conditions in several ways and is relevant for all

uses in marine spatial plans. Climate-related effects linked to the sea include changes in

temperature, salinity, ocean acidification, altered and reduced ice formation, rising sea levels and

changing weather patterns (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2024d). These

climate effects lead to indirect effects such as changes in species composition and ecosystems

when marine species react to changes. In turn, climate impacts in the sea can also lead to

societal impacts, such as changes in maritime and marine value chains and an increased risk of

beach erosion. Figure 3 below illustrates climate effects in the marine environment, for more

detailed information on the effects of climate change in the sea, see the Swedish Agency for

Marine and Water Management’s climate adaptation plan and the marine strategy (Swedish

Agency for Marine and Water Management 2024d, Swedish Agency for Marine and Water

Management 2024a).

Based on regional conditions, it differs how climate change will affect different sea areas in

Sweden. In the Gulf of Bothnia, ice formation is a factor that can play a greater role than in other

sea areas, and in the Baltic Sea changes in salinity and circulation can exacerbate problems with

oxygen-free bottoms. Sea level rise also has a regional dimension as land rise is greater in

northern Sweden (SMHI, 2023). Already today, marine environmental monitoring shows that the

Phase Effects Indirect effects Long-term consequences

Link with other aspects

Possible consideration measures

Facility Dispersion of pollutants and sediments on site

Increased turbidity and local concentration of pollutants

Increased levels of chemicals in marine organisms, impact on marine organisms and habitats

Professional fishing, health, fish and fish spawning

Studies of the benthic habitat and location, as well as planning of the plant with regard to current conditions

Operation Impact on hydrographic conditions

Influence biochemical properties, such as salinity, halocline, currents

Algal blooms Altered oxygen conditions at the bottom, dispersal of larvae, altered species composition

Fish and fish spawning, Climate

Location of wind turbines

Dispersion of substances during erosion of construction

Increased local concentration of certain substances

Increased levels of certain substances

Fish and fish spawning

Use of erosion protection, e.g. sacrificial anodes

Dispersion of pollutants and oil in the event of a breakdown or accident

Increased local concentration of certain substances

Impact on marine organisms and impact on preparedness

Health, Shipping

Safeguards and monitoring

Settlement Sediment dispersal

Increased turbidity and local concentration of pollutants

Impact on marine organisms and habitats

Professional fishing, fish and fish spawning

Studies of the benthic habitat and location, as well as planning of the plant with regard to current conditions

- 48 -

average temperature in Swedish sea areas has risen and more and more studies confirm that this

affects the ranges of marine species (Sweden’s aquatic environment, 2023).

Figure 3. Shows an illustration of climate change in the ocean (Own illustration: Veronica Berntson).

A changing climate in the future

According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate

Change (IPCC), the extent of climate problems depends,

among other things, on how well society manages to

switch to renewable energy production and thus reduce

greenhouse gas emissions (IPCC, 2023). In order to be

able to work proactively with the climate issue, the IPCC

has developed climate scenarios that can give an

indication of a possible development of the climate based

on different levels of greenhouse gases in the

atmosphere. The scenarios, also known as RCP

(Representative Concentration Pathways), show what a

possible future development could look like from a

continuation of current emission trends (RCP 8.5), to a

very large limitation of future emissions (RCP 2.6), see

Figure 4.

Figure 4. Examples of possible CO2 emission trajectories at different RCPs given as billion tonnes of carbon (van Vuuren et al., 2011).

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Climate scenarios are also applicable in the sea, models show that all marine areas in Sweden

risk facing major changes if emission levels are not reduced. Factors such as increased

precipitation and increased temperature will have an impact on the marine environment. Figure 5

and 6 show projections for the oceanographic climate indicators surface temperature and surface

salinity in Sweden’s marine areas for RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5 in 2040-2070 (SMHI, u.y.).

The trend for climate change is that there is an increased risk and likelihood that marine

ecosystems will be increasingly negatively affected (IPCC, 2023), and marine spatial planning

may need to take more parameters related to climate and climate adaptation into account.

Climate change occurs in a context where marine ecosystems are also exposed to other

pressures that stress marine organisms and ecosystems. The combined effects of climate

change and other pressures such as eutrophication, selective fishing or marine pollution can lead

to large-scale changes in marine ecosystems and loss of both habitats and biodiversity (Swedish

Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2024a). Modelling studies using the cumulative

impact assessment tool Symphony show that in the long term, pressures from climate change will

have a greater impact than the combined impact of other pressures (Wåhlström et al., 2022).

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Figure 6. Displays the expected change in surface salt content (PSU) for RCP 4.5 (left) and 8.5 (right).

Figure 5. Displays the expected change in sea surface temperature in degrees Celcius for RCP 4.5 (left) and 8.5 (right).

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Environmental impacts linked to climate change

Climate change is relevant to marine spatial planning from several perspectives, partly because

of its impact on the sea and the interests that depend on the sea’s ability to deliver ecosystem

services, and partly because marine spatial plans can contribute to both reduced climate

emissions and climate adaptation measures. Several uses and maritime activities also generate

greenhouse gas emissions that in themselves contribute to climate change, such as shipping,

commercial fishing, outdoor activities and the hospitality industry. The plan can also help

strengthen the ocean's capacity to deal with climate change by providing guidance on the

consideration and protection of marine environments. Strengthening the resilience of ecosystems

through strategic area protection and coordination with marine spatial planning is part of the

Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management’s climate adaptation plan (Swedish Agency

for Marine and Water Management, 2024d). Guidance on nature use or particular consideration

for high nature values (small-n) can, when applied, contribute to a positive climate effect as

natural ecosystems protected from exploitation act as marine carbon sinks and store carbon

dioxide in either biomass, or in sediment (Björk et al. 2021, Baltic Sea Centre 2021). Marine

environments protected from pressures can also lead to ecosystems becoming more resilient,

withstanding and recover from climate-related impacts, such as heat waves. Potential function as

a climate refugia is a selection criterion for areas with particular consideration to high nature

values that have been applied in marine spatial planning where data were available (Hammar &

Mattsson, 2017). Climate refugias are areas that are considered to be highly likely to host

biodiversity even in a changing climate.

Impact on climate linked to offshore wind energy

Renewable energy production and national climate targets

The addition of renewable energy production is a prerequisite for Sweden to achieve national and

international climate goals (see paragraph 1.4.2 Environmental and climate objectives). In 2023,

Sweden’s emissions of carbon dioxide equivalent amounted to approximately 48 million tonnes

(Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, 2024c). By 2030, national emissions are to be

reduced by 20 million tonnes and down to 10 million tonnes by 2045 (Swedish Environmental

Protection Agency, 2023a). It is the industrial and transport sectors that account for the largest

emissions in Sweden (see Figure 7 below), and it is in these sectors that there is a great need to

replace fossil-based energy sources as the majority of petroleum-based energy carriers are used

here (Energy Agency, 2024). Demand for energy is expected to rise until 2050, which means that

the supply of fossil-free energy will be particularly important for emissions to be reduced in

accordance with climate targets (Energy Agency, 2023a). There are different projections and

scenarios for estimating future energy needs, see section 2.4.1 Energy.

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Figure 7. Shows Sweden's emissions of carbon dioxide equivalents broken down by different sectors. Note that the figures in the figure were preliminary, and differ from Statistics Sweden's figures. Image source: Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, 2024c.

Climate impact and benefits

Offshore wind energy has a positive climate effect as it does not contribute to greenhouse gas

emissions. In addition, it is assessed to have low carbon dioxide emissions from a life cycle

perspective (Energy Agency, 2023a). The climate benefits of offshore wind power are mainly due

to the displacement of fossil fuels. It can be more direct, when electricity from fossil fuels is

replaced by that from offshore wind, or more indirect, when electricity produced with low

emissions replaces fossil fuels as energy carriers in other sectors. Direct compensation is when

fossil fuels for electricity generation is replaced by offshore wind power, and CO2 emissions can

be reduced by substituting electricity from offshore wind power for fossil electricity generation.

Examples of indirect substitution are when fossil fuels for the transport sector and/or fossil raw

materials in industrial processes such as the replacement of coal with hydrogen in steel

production.

It is difficult to estimate exactly what climate benefit offshore wind power could have in the

Swedish energy system, as there are several different factors that affect the outcome. One

example for which electricity generation from offshore wind power could be substituted is the

residual mix. Residual mix is an environmental value for the electricity that is not produced and

sold with guarantees (Energy Market Inspectorate, u.y). It is this electricity that constitutes the

electricity available on the market, there is a Nordic mix, and a European mix. In 2023, the Nordic

residual mix had a climate impact of 524.10 g CO2eq/kWh or 524 100 tonnes CO2eq/TWh

(Energy Markets Inspectorate, 2024). This value is due to a fossil share of 78.82 percent, while

the renewable corresponds to 6.51 percent and nuclear 14.68%, see Figure 8 below. For its part,

the European residual mix had a climate impact of 599.23 g CO2eq/kWh or 599 230 tCO2eq/TWh

(AIB, 2024). This can be compared to a climate impact from offshore wind power that has a

median of 11 g CO2e/kWh or 11 000 tonnes of CO2e/TWh (Energy Agency, 2021). With these

- 53 -

assumptions, each TWh of offshore wind power would thus have a clear potential for reduced

climate impact. The environmental and average climate impact from the residual mix varies from

year to year depending on energy production, and as fossil-free energy production increases and

replaces fossil production, the climate impact from the residual mix will decrease. The

environmental value of the residual mix has changed from year to year (Energy Market

Inspectorate, 2024).

Figure 8. Shows the distribution of energy sources in the Nordic residual mix in 2023. Source Energy Market Inspectorate, 2024

Landscape

Current situation, conditions and development

The establishment of offshore wind power can mean large-scale changes in the landscape as the

turbines have a considerable height and large sweeping area for the rotor blades. The rotation of

the rotor blades contributes to landscape impact, as well as at night through the active obstacle

lighting.

The current situation in Swedish sea areas is characterised by few and, where appropriate, more

small-scale existing offshore wind farms. These include Lillgrund (Ö287) in Öresund, Kårehamn

east of Öland, and Bockstigen 1 southwest of Gotland. Kårehamn is not an energy area for

cartographic reasons and Bockstigen 1 is not included in the marine spatial planning area. In

general, this means that there are currently few physical installations in Swedish waters, which

means that knowledge of the impact on the landscape is limited. Offshore wind power affects the

landscape in all directions from the plant, but primarily the impact on the coast and how the

physical structure affects the existing coastal landscape is assessed. The location and design of

wind farms can have a major impact on the landscape, where issues such as height, location and

design, formation and lighting come into play. In some energy areas, the marine spatial plan

gives particular consideration to high cultural heritage values, which means that consideration

must be taken in the management, planning and licensing of energy areas, which can contribute

to certain adaptations that can mitigate the impact on cultural environments, thereby reducing the

impact on the landscape.

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The landscape along Sweden's coasts is varied from both a natural and cultural environment

perspective. The natural environments include forested and shrub-clad environments, open,

stony and rocky coasts as well as finely topography-broken archipelagos and flat stretches of

coastline. The cultural environments are characterized by human’s historical use of the landscape

in the form of, for example, fishing communities, but also modern occurences such as large-scale

ports and urban environments.

National interests for, among other things, the cultural environment and recreation capture the

landscape's values and contribute to consideration in planning and permit applications. This

impact assessment includes assessments of the cultural environment and recreation as its own

parts, but where relevant, also described areas of national interest unbroken coastline and high-

exploited coastline under Chapter 4, Sections 3-4 of the Environmental Code. Landscape

protection is also mentioned in the Nature Conservation Act (1964:822) where it risks being

affected by the establishment of offshore wind power. The assessment of the impact on the

landscape can be seen as a starting point for visual effects on cultural environment and

recreation interests.

In an approach to a future outlook, the landscape is expected to be marginally affected along the

Swedish coast. However, larger installations of industrial scale can contribute to a major change

in the landscape, not least of offshore wind power.

Impact linked to offshore wind energy

The impact on the landscape depends on several factors. This analysis of landscape effects

includes the proximity of the energy areas to land, the angle of view from land and from which

points on land the wind turbines are visible. Proximity to land or distance from land is considered

to be the most important impact factor because it largely determines the visual presence of the

works and thus the degree of impact. Other possible impacts on the landscape that offshore wind

power may have are not included in this analysis, such as related onshore infrastructure. Visual

impact need not by definition be negative, as the perception of wind turbines is subjective.

Although negative perceptions of the visual impact offshore wind power can have, there are also

positive perceptions of it (Bolin et al., 2021).

To give an idea of the difference in impact on the landscape with different distances from land,

photomontages has been developed for a hypothetical example park. The park is twenty

kilometers long and ten kilometers wide with the long side towards the coast and the pictures

show it 5, 12.5, 25, 35 and 50 kilometers from land.

The sample park has 72 wind turbines with a total height of 343 metres, a hub height of 200

metres and a rotor diameter of 286 metres. The distance between the turbines is 6 rotor

diameters or about 1.7 kilometers.

The size of the sample park has been chosen to give examples of a medium-sized wind farm

based on the size of the energy areas in the plan proposal. See Figure 7 for the layout of the

sample park.

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Figure 9. The layout of the sample park with 72 wind turbines placed in grids with 1.7 kilometers of distance between the turbines. The red angle shows the point of view from land.

Below are photomontages for the different distances from land. The Swedish Agency for Marine

and Water Management's website contains these images, images with a marked sweep area and

video animations for the sample park at night. With a larger screen, it is recommended to view the

images with a height of 18 centimeters and a distance of 40 centimeters from the screen for the

most realistic representation possible. In this document, they can be seen at a height of 9

centimeters at a distance of 20 centimeters. Below are the images cropped to fit into the

document.

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Figure 11. The example park with a 5 km distance from land to the nearest works.

Figure 10. The example park with a 12.5 km distance from land to the nearest works.

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Figure 12. The example park with a 25 km distance from land to the nearest works.

Figure 13. The example park with a 35 km distance from land to the nearest works.

- 58 -

For the images showing cumulative impacts from several parks, similar facilities have been added

as explained below. For the night animations, all works have been provided with a flashing white

light in accordance with the Transport Agency’s instructions. Images and animations are made

without weather filters.

Figure 15. The example park with a 50 km distance from land to the nearest works.

Figure 14. Example of cumulative effect with the example park 12.5 km from land with a view to the right with another park 25 km from land.

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Impact during construction, operation and decommissioning

Table 8. Shows the type of impact from offshore wind power in different phases in relation to the landscape, as well as possible consideration measures for planning and planning that can reduce negative effects and consequences.

Phase Type of impact Possible consideration measure

Facility Visual impact Location and design of wind farm

Operation Visual impact Custom obstacle lighting

Settlement Visual impact No specific measure

Cultural environment

Current situation, conditions and development

The cultural environment provides a picture of Sweden's history and people's livelihood. Cultural

environments have arisen through various historical events, processes and activities, reflecting

people's use of the landscape from ancient times to the present. The environments make it

possible for present and future generations to take part in the landscape's historical dimension

and thereby understand Sweden's development through the ages.

Cultural environments can also have significance for people in different ways, where it can be, for

example, about identity and context in life or about well-being. Cultural environments are also

important for economic development at local and regional level, as well as for recreation, tourism

and science. How the environments are used varies from generation to generation. A basic

condition, however, is that there must be a sufficient representation of preserved cultural

environments to be able to understand how the country has formed and developed over time.

The cultural environment in the three marine spatial planning areas includes national interests,

world heritage, regional value areas, marine archaeological sites and cultural reserves. The

cultural heritage in and by the sea is characterised by the traditional industries of fishing,

shipping, agriculture, industry and tourism. Valuable environments, landscapes and buildings are

linked to archipelago agriculture, fishing villages, seaside resorts, harbours, fortifications,

lighthouse and pilot sites and coastal industry, which in turn arose there because of the

connection to the sea. For many of these cultural environments, a nearby coastal and archipelago

landscape as well as free lines of sight towards the horizon are important to be able to

understand the historical context and function linked to the sea. The intensive activities over the

centuries have also resulted in a cultural landscape on the seabed. This includes, for example,

shipwrecks, settlements, ship gates, port facilities and anchorages.

The National Heritage Board is responsible for identifying national interest claims for cultural

heritage conservation under Chapter 3, Section 6 of the Environmental Code. Today, there are

about 300 national interest claims for cultural conservation along the coast, but as yet none in the

marine spatial planning areas. However, cultural environments outside the marine spatial

planning areas may be indirectly affected by changes in landscape or accessibility within the

marine spatial planning areas. In addition to the cultural heritage conservation claims, there are

also national interests under Chapter 4 of the Environmental Code. These geographically defined

areas of national interest are listed in the Environmental Code and have been decided by the

Parliament. They are national interests for unbroken coasts under Chapter 4, Section 3 of the

Environmental Code and high-exploited coasts under Chapter 4, Section 4 of the Environmental

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Code. The areas are of national interest, taking into account natural and cultural values as a

whole, and their use must not significantly harm the values of these areas. See Figure 16 below.

Furthermore, there is also a planning basis for marine cultural heritage values for the national

marine spatial planning, which has been developed by all coastal county administrative boards

according to a government letter of appropriation (RB2021:2B4). The purpose of the assignment

were to clarify cultural heritage values along Sweden's coast that may be affected by the

expansion of offshore wind power. The document presents cultural environments together with

the County Administrative Board's recommendations on consideration needs for the designated

so-called value areas (County Administrative Boards, 2024). In total, there are 96 value areas

along the coast of Sweden. Most of these are located outside the marine spatial plan area, but

with several consideration needs that extend within the marine spatial plan area. Several areas of

value contain existing areas of national interest, but designations have also been based on other

cultural heritage and/or formal protection. This includes cultural sites covered by international

conventions such as the Council of Europe's Landscape Convention and UNESCO's World

Heritage Convention, listed buildings under ordinance 2013:558 on state-owned listed buildings,

cultural reserves (Chapter 7, Section 9 of the Environmental Code) and landscape protection in

the Nature Conservation Act (1964:822), for example. World heritage in the vicinity of Sweden's

marine spatial planning area are the High Coast, the Hanseatic City of Visby, the Naval City of

Karlskrona, Southern Öland's agricultural landscape and Struve's meridian arch

(Riksantikvarieämbetetet, u.å.a.).

The marine spatial plan states that particular consideration must be given to high cultural heritage

values in the management, planning and permit procedures. Particular consideration for high

cultural heritage values refers to the landscape's cultural-historical character and visual impact

that changes the cultural-historical content, but also includes consideration for ancient and

cultural-historical sites on the seabed. Particular consideration is given to high cultural heritage

values for energy areas that are considered to be likely to visually affect cultural heritage areas

expressed through national interest claims and value areas. Particular consideration for high

cultural environments is given for all energy areas in the marine spatial plan except for four

(B159, B160, B161, V360). The guidance is considered to be able to contribute to certain

adaptations that can mitigate the impact on cultural environments from the energy areas

(Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2025).

Measures that limit climate change, including achieving an energy transition, can have a positive

impact on the long-term management of all of Sweden's cultural environments. Climate change,

such as sea level rise and accompanying shore shift, can lead to damage to cultural

environments both on land and in the sea. A rise in sea temperature may also involve the

establishment of invasive species that damage wooden structures. Ship sites, older port facilities

and cultural-historical industrial environments can in turn pose environmental threats if they

contain heavy metals and other environmentally hazardous substances that are released into the

sea.

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Figure 16. Map of national interest unbroken coast, high-exploited coast and national interest claims for cultural heritage conservation (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2025).

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Figure 17. Map of other valuable areas for the cultural environment such as World Heritage Sites, regional value areas, marine archaeological sites, cultural reserves and landscape conservation (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2025).

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Environmental effects and impacts linked to offshore wind power

The establishment of offshore wind power can mainly affect cultural environments in two ways: a

direct physical impact and an indirect visual impact. Direct impacts can occur, for example,

through the interventions on the seabed that the establishment requires and which can thus affect

marine cultural heritage, including marine archaeological sites. The impact area may be larger

than the area occupied by foundations or anchorages, as connection also requires cabling and

other infrastructure both in the sea and on land. There is generally high uncertainty about marine

archaeological sites, and how they are affected by the establishment of offshore wind power.

Lack of situational awareness, low information quality and antiquarian assessments risk causing

damage to marine cultural environments. However, the risk that the establishment of offshore

wind power would damage marine archaeological sites is considered low, as marine

archaeological investigations and studies that should be done can contribute to an increased

knowledge of marine cultural heritage, where more are often discovered and mapped.

The establishment of tall and large facilities can have an indirect, visual impact on a cultural

environment and the historical function it is an expression of. In addition to the wind farm's

dimensions, the complexity of the impact also lies in how the establishment is perceived and

interpreted together with the cultural environment and its values. The conditions for assessing the

impact on the cultural environment solely on the basis of proposed areas for wind power

establishment are limited, as a complete assessment requires knowledge of the expression of

each establishment (height, location, design, formation).

In the 2021 appropriation directions, the Government instructed the coastal county administrative

boards to develop an appropriate planning basis for cultural environments in the national marine

spatial planning (Regeringen, 2021a). In January 2024, the County Administrative Board of

Västra Götaland presented the compilation of the appropriation directions assignment

(RB2021:3B4, County Administrative Boards, 2024). The documentation clarifies which cultural

values along Sweden's coastline may be affected by an expansion of offshore wind power. The

document presents a selection of cultural environments along the Swedish coast in the form of

so-called marine value areas, together with the county administrative board's recommendations

on consideration needs for these. The value areas are based on national interests according to

chapters 3 and 4 of the Environmental Code, World Heritage, municipally designated cultural

environments, ancient and cultural historical sites on land and under the sea surface, landscape

context, lines of sight, cultural and nature reserves, Natura 2000 areas, biosphere reserves and

landscape image protection. At the same time, it should be noted that other cultural sites of

regional and/or local interest may also need to be taken into account when planning an activity or

establishment. Some county administrative boards have also chosen to update and assure the

quality of the information on marine archaeological sites in the cultural environment register in

connection with the assignment.

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Impact during construction, operation and decommissioning

Table 9. Shows the type of impact from offshore wind power in relation to the cultural environment during different phases, as well as possible consideration measures for planning and planning that can reduce negative effects and consequences.

Phase Type of impact Possible consideration measure

Facility

Physical impact on remnants

Location and design of the wind farm, as well as aspects such as height of the wind turbines.

Operation Visual impact Custom obstacle lighting

Settlement Physical impact on remnants No specific measure

Management with water, land and the physical

environment in general

Energy

Government Mission on Revised Marine Spatial Plans and Energy Policy Objectives

The starting point for proposals for amended marine spatial plans is Government mandate

M2022/276 on expanded areas for electricity production from offshore wind power. Increased

electricity production is needed to reach Sweden’s climate and energy targets (see also Section

2.3.2, Climate), as well as to enable a green transition of industry and extensive electrification

(Government 2022b).

The focus of energy policy means that planning for electricity use will be based on a need of at

least 300 terawatt hours in 2045, which means approximately a doubling compared to the current

situation. This, together with an energy policy goal that the composition of electricity production

should be 100 percent fossil-free by 2040. The overall objective of energy policy is to create the

conditions for efficient and sustainable energy use and a cost-effective energy supply with low

impact on health, the environment and climate (Government 2024a).

Sweden is facing strong electrification, with an expected increase in electricity consumption from

around 140 TWh to around 160-210 TWh by 2030 and in the longer term, by 2045 the electricity

demand is expected to be in the range of 200-340 TWh. The range of future electricity needs

depends on scenarios, high and low, and indicates uncertainties in forecasts for the pace of

transition. The increase in electricity consumption is mainly due to the conversion of energy-

intensive industries, new industries and electrification of the transport sector (Energy Agency

2023c).

The energy transition poses spatial challenges for the expansion of electricity production and

grids to meet the increased demand. Offshore wind power also poses a challenge as power

production is weather dependent and thus intermittent. The Government has given various

authorities a number of government assignments in this regard. One assignment concerns

developed regional and local energy planning for electrification, which has been submitted to the

County Administrative Board of Västra Götaland and the Swedish Energy Agency (Regeringen,

2023a). In addition, two government assignments regarding intermittent power production were

submitted to Svenska Kraftnät, the Swedish Energy Markets Inspectorate and the Swedish

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Energy Agency. The assignments concern incentives for better power contribution, as well as the

design and integration of intermittent power production (Government 2024b, Government 2024c).

In December 2024, the final report of the inquiry Wind power in the sea - A transition to an

auction system was submitted. The inquiry's task was to analyse how the establishment of wind

power can be improved and how the permit procedure for wind power in Sweden's economic

zone can be more effective and clear. In addition, in a supplementary directive, the inquiry would

also assess and take a position on whether Sweden should, in the long term, move to an

instruction system for permitting offshore wind power and how it should be designed. The

inquiry's conclusion and recommendation is that Sweden should switch to the allocation and

auction system, rather than the current system. The inquiry justifies this on the basis that the

current regulatory framework is not considered to be appropriate for the exploitation of the sea for

offshore wind power (Government Official Reports, 2024).

Current electricity use and production

The development of the electricity system is central to achieving the green transition. Since the

late 1980s, electricity consumption has remained relatively constant at around 140 TWh.

Dominant end-uses of electricity in 2022 were residential and service sectors, as well as industry,

see Figure 18 below.

Figure 18. Electricity consumption by sector, 2022 share of TWh. Source Swedish Energy Agency, 2024.

Sectors where electricity use is expected to increase mainly due to the transition are the industrial

and transport sectors. In terms of electricity use in industry in 2022, the main sectors were the

paper and pulp industry, steel and metal works, followed by the chemical and engineering

industries, see Figure 19 below.

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Figure 19. Industrial electricity use by industry, 2022 TWh. Source Swedish Energy Agency 2024.

As regards the transport sector and domestic electricity consumption, it remained relatively

constant around 3 TWh, but slightly increased in 2022 to almost 4 TWh (Energy Agency, 2024).

With targets for the transformation of the transport sector, it is assumed that the share of

electricity as a fuel will increase in the future.

The government commission on offshore wind power mentions deficits in electricity production in

southern Sweden, while electricity use in the area is relatively high. Where electricity is produced

and consumed varies regionally. The highest electricity use occurs in the metropolitan regions,

Stockholm County, Västra Götaland County, Skåne County, followed by Norrbotten County and

Västernorrland County. In Västra Götaland, Norrbotten and Västernorrland counties end-users

are mainly industrial and construction activities, in Stockholm and Skåne counties the

predominant end-use is electricity use for other services - and single-family houses, see Figure

20 below.

Figure 20. End-use electricity (TWh) for the counties of Stockholm, Västra Götaland, Skåne, Norrbotten, Västernorrland, distributed consumer category, 2022. Source SCB 2024.

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The marine spatial plan describes the conditions for energy extraction in Sweden (part 6.1

Prerequisites for energy extraction) including the four bidding zones, from SE1 in the north to SE4

in the south. In northern Sweden there is currently a production surplus, and in southern Sweden

a deficit. The bidding zones provide guidance on where more generation and electricity

transmission is needed through different pricing. In 2024, a joint review of the zoning of EU

bidding zones was ongoing. If the national decision-making body decides on a change, it can be

implemented no earlier than 2027 (Svenska Kraftnät, 2024b).

Surpluses and deficits depend to some extent on the level of production. A larger share of

electricity production takes place within bidding zone 2, followed by bidding zone 3, bidding zone

1 and bidding zone 4 (Energy Agency 2024, Electricity production per bidding zone).

Electricityconsumption in each bidding zone is largely explained by consumption levels at

regional level. Bidding zone 2 includes the metropolitan regions of Stockholm and Gothenburg.

Electricity prices in all bidding zones, but mainly bidding zones 3 and 4, have been unusually high

for a period due to, among other things, the geopolitical situation and high prices for fossil fuels,

especially natural gas (the Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management 2025).

Offshore energy generation and transmission

Offshore energy can be produced from wind, waves, currents, tides or a salinity gradient. In

Sweden, offshore energy production is still carried out on a small scale and mainly as wind

power. In 2022, Swedish wind power produced 33 TWh, of which the offshore turbines accounted

for 0.6 TWh (Energy Agency, 2023d). There are currently three offshore wind farms adjacent to

the marine spatial plans (Bockstigen (Gotland), Kårehamn (Öland) and Lillgrund), all located

within the territorial sea. Kårehamn and Lillgrund are located in the marine spatial planning area.

However, due to cartographic reasons, Kårehamn is not marked as an energy area in the plan

map.

From an energy extraction perspective, there are several advantages of offshore wind power.

Winds at sea are often both stronger and smoother than over land, making it possible to build

efficient parks with a high production. Offshore wind power can provide electricity production in

areas where there are restrictions on the establishment of other types of power such as onshore

wind power. In this way, offshore wind power can provide a greater geographical spread of

electricity production in Sweden. Higher costs for offshore wind compared to, for example,

onshore wind make it difficult to achieve economic viability and may limit the deployment of

offshore wind.

In the case of other offshore energy generation, the technology is new and largely under

development. In Sweden, research, development and demonstration are carried out in wave

power, as well as research in marine current power. Several private and public actors are

preparing new experiments with ocean energy in Swedish waters (International Energy Agency,

2023). Today, there are several wind power projects that highlight the possibility of producing

hydrogen with the electricity generated by wind power, either in the plant itself or on land. On-site

production requires additional offshore infrastructure, either for ships to receive and load

hydrogen, or gas pipelines to shore. There is currently no hydrogen production in the Swedish

marine spatial planning area. With regard to natural gas, there is currently a pipeline between

Malmö and Denmark that supplies the western Swedish natural gas network. Two parallel lines

run between Russia and Germany through Sweden's economic zone (Nord Stream) and another

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line between Poland and Denmark (Baltic pipe) which may also affect the Swedish exclusive

economic zone.

Environmental impacts and impacts linked to offshore wind energy

Environmental effects from offshore wind power, includes environmental effects in the form of the

addition of fossil-free energy for electricity supply, as well as the impact on land and water where

the wind farm is established. Land claims for wind power affect the surrounding environment and

people. Energy extraction also indirectly affects land and water use in the sea and on land,

relating to infrastructure for the construction, maintenance and decommissioning of wind turbines,

as well as surfaces for electricity distribution, cables and transmission networks. The actual

surface requirement for construction, for example, is difficult to assess as it depends on a number

of different factors, such as the size of the project, technology choices, distance to land, use of

ports nationally or abroad, and other factors. See section 6.1 on prerequisites for energy

extraction in the planning document (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management 2025).

The impact varies between the construction phase, the operational phase and the

decommissioning phase. The impact during the construction and decommissioning phase is

temporary, and mainly concerns bottom impact and noise. The imprint is also of a different nature

depending on the type of foundation.

Bottom-fixed foundations are anchored in place either by drilling, piling or suction cup anchors

into the seabed, or by gravity foundations. Today, bottom-fixed foundations are used down to

about 70 meters depth, but experiments occur in deeper waters. Floating foundations can be

used in front of bottom-fixed at depths of at least around 50 meters, and anchored to the bottom

with ropes or chains. The floating wind power has a significantly larger footprint in the water

column compared to the bottom fixed, since cables and power cables need to be several times

longer than the distance between the turbine and the bottom. The different types of foundations

have approximately the same impact on the bottom (Energy Agency, 2023a). During the

operation phase, some noise occurs, but the effects of this are not clear. Birds and bats are at

risk of being affected by collisions, but some species may also suffer habitat loss as they avoid

the wind farm and seek food elsewhere. The cable laying entails physical impact on the benthic

habitat as well as turbidity and electromagnetic radiation. A potential positive effect of wind power

is that the foundations can act as artificial reefs and attract different marine species, such as fish

and marine mammals (Bergström et al., 2022). Wind power also affects the conditions for other

industries such as commercial fishing, shipping and air traffic.

Which environmental effects and impacts actually occur depends on the possibility of coexistence

and for adaptations, possible consideration measures of wind farms or activities. For more

information see the respective sections in Chapter 2 Conditions and environmental effects.

National interests and the marine spatial plan's guidance energy

The Swedish Energy Agency decides on national interest claims for installations for energy

production and distribution in accordance with Chapter 3, Section 8 of the Environmental Code.

The Swedish Energy Agency has been tasked with updating its national interest claims

(Regeringen, 2024e). Appropriate areas for energy extraction reported in 2023 are seen as a

basis for the designation of new areas of national interest (Energy Agency 2023a).

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The claims for energy production in the marine spatial plan area include wind farms and are

based on criteria for annual average wind, depth and area size. National interest claims for

energy production were developed in 2013, and technology development in wind power has been

rapid since then. Technological development since 2013 means that today there are more areas

that have suitable properties for wind power compared to when the national interest claims were

decided.

The marine spatial plan's guidance of energy areas takes into account uncertainties regarding

feasibility in time, economic and spatial conditions and with regard to various interests such as

defence, culture and nature values and adaptations to shipping safety zones. The plan proposal

does not, for example, provide guidance on specific safety distances to shipping routes and the

realisation within each energy area thus needs to be spatially and surface-wise adapted to any

surrounding shipping routes, as well as to other interests and guidance on particular

consideration for defence, cultural environment and nature values. The planning takes into

account different conditions regarding the realization of wind power based on depth, technology

and economic conditions. In the latter case, economic conditions, it is mainly about the

anchorage and foundation of the wind turbines, bottom-fixed and floating. In the short term,

bottom-fixed foundations are expected to have greater feasability, in terms of forecasts for

technology development and profitability for investment. While floating foundation wind turbines

are likely to be realizable only in the slightly longer term.

Within the territorial sea, the marine spatial plan coincides with municipal planning. Municipalities

point out areas of wind power in their comprehensive planning in accordance with the Planning

and Building Act (2010:900).

Achievement of objectives, national and municipal interests - energy

The assignment to expand the areas for energy extraction in the marine spatial plans is based on

the large electricity demand that the ongoing electrification and industrial transition entails, and

that there is currently a shortage of electricity production in southern Sweden. The marine spatial

plan's guidance is that it should be possible to use areas for energy production so that it

corresponds to a total of 120 TWh of annual electricity production in the three marine spatial

plans together. This means that the plan includes a certain margin based on adaptation needs

during realisation, for example with regard to the safety distance to shipping to be taken into

account.

According to the Marine Spatial Planning Regulation, marine spatial plans are to contribute to

national environmental, industrial and social objectives, of which energy policy objectives form

part. With the plan’s guidance and marine spatial planning objectives of creating the conditions

for regional development, as well as creating the conditions for energy transmission and

renewable energy extraction in the oceans, the plan’s guidance on energy contributes to the

national strategy for sustainable regional development (Government, 2021b). The strategy

includes a number of priorities and provides guidance for the implementation of the Ordinance on

Regional Development Work (2017:583). Marine spatial planning contributes to the prioritisation

of spatial planning, for equal opportunities for housing, work and welfare throughout the country,

as well as to the prioritisation of the climate and environmentally sustainable economy, based on

the plan’s guidance on offshore energy extraction. Through guidance on nature and particular

consideration for high nature values, the marine spatial plan also contributes to the strategy’s

priority of reducing climate impact, as well as preserving biodiversity and ecosystem services in a

changing climate. The plan’s guidance on energy also contributes to the national strategy’s

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priority on the establishment, production and use of renewable energy. This is significant for

households and the transformation of the industrial and transport sectors, important conditions for

competitive industries and employment, both directly and indirectly. For more information on

marine spatial planning objectives and national strategy for sustainable regional and its priorities,

see section 1.1, marine spatial planning and objectives of the marine spatial plans and section

6.3 Assessment to other plans and programmes.

Employment linked to offshore wind energy means on the one hand direct jobs during the

phases; the development, design and production of turbines and foundations, as well as the

design, construction, operation, maintenance and decommissioning of wind turbines, and more

indirectly through the supply of skills, as well as contributions to energy supply and other

business development, industrial conversion, maintenance and job creation. The contribution of

offshore wind to employment is difficult to quantify, but there are many links between offshore

wind and other parts of society and industry. The wind power industry is international and

employment is distributed internationally between countries, regionally and locally. The number of

jobs varies during the different phases, more jobs during the construction phase, lower but higher

proportion of regional jobs for operation and maintenance (Energy Agency 2024).

Energy supply is also classified by the Swedish Civil Contingencies Agency (MSB) as an

important social function. The societal function refers to the ability to meet society's electricity

supply needs. The function covers the production, transmission, distribution and trading of

electricity and activities to maintain or ensure the important societal function are examples,

control and monitoring as well as maintenance and repair of infrastructure. Important activities are

significant activities for society’s basic needs and security and constitute an important starting

point in the work on accident protection, crisis preparedness and civil defence (MSB, 2021).

There may also be a potential increased vulnerability under the current political security situation

in the Baltic Sea, regarding the challenges of protecting and guarding infrastructure far out at sea,

especially outside the Swedish territorial sea (Energy Agency, 2023a).

Recreation

Current situation, conditions and development

Recreation and tourism in and by the sea include nature, culture and landscape experiences and

various outdoor activities. Recreation is dependent on several conditions. It is about having

sufficient access to natural and cultural environment areas of good quality where it is possible to

exercise recreation. The areas also need to be accessible, both physically and experientially, to

the outdoor enthusiast who can be both local or out of town. The starting point for the use of

recreation in the marine spatial plan is based on national interest claims for recreation in

accordance with Chapter 3, Section 6 of the Environmental Code. National interest in mobile

recreation, Chapter 4, Section 2 of the Environmental Code, which extends along the coast of

Bohuslän, Halland, the archipelago of Östergötland, Gotland, Södermanland and Stockholm, the

High Coast and Norrbotten, shall also be taken into account. In these areas, the interests of

tourism and recreation, primarily mobile recreation, shall be particularly taken into account in

development. National interest claims for recreation consist of areas that are considered to have

particularly good conditions for people to have enriching experiences in the natural environment

and areas used by many people. Other areas of national interest also have a bearing on

recreation, especially the coastal areas and archipelagos referred to in Chapter 4, Sections 3-4 of

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the Environmental Code, but also areas related to cultural environments include values for

recreation.

Outdoor activities and recreation occur to some extent in the marine spatial planning area, mainly

at embankments, but to a greater extent along the coasts. Popular outdoor activities at sea and in

coastal areas include boating, recreational fishing, coastal hiking, swimming, diving and

paragliding. The waterborne recreation consists mainly of recreational boats and recreational

fishing. Recreational craft are found in a total of 16 per cent of Swedish households and the total

number amounts to approximately 865,000 recreational craft nationally (Transportstyrelsen,

2021). Recreational shipping moves mainly inshore or near the coast. Self-adapted routes

outside fairways are common. Some pleasure boat traffic also occurs on the open sea, such as

sailing routes to and from larger islands or in the waters outside archipelagos, major cities and

pleasure boat ports (Sjöfartsverket & Transportstyrelsen, 2023). There are also important routes

to Denmark, Åland and Finland. In 2021, recreational fishing was carried out by approximately 1.5

million Swedish citizens between the ages of 16 and 80, of whom approximately 30 per cent of

the recreational fishing days took place in marine waters (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water

Management & Statistics Sweden, 2022).

The land-based and coastal recreation can offer activities such as swimming, hiking and

camping. Areas that are designated as national interest for recreation are areas that can offer

qualities such as undisturbedness, low noise and views towards the horizon or interesting and

unique landscape views. Interest in recreation gained a boost during the pandemic years and is

expected to gain increased importance in the future. The tourism industry is also expected to

continue to increase after a downturn during the pandemic, and domestic tourism is an increasing

part of tourism in Sweden (Tillväxtverket, 2022). A healthy sea and functioning ecosystem

services are a prerequisite for functioning recreation, while recreation and tourism can have a

negative impact on the environment. Climate change can affect the conditions as a warmer

climate can threaten icing in the Gulf of Bothnia and shorten the tourist season in winter, while a

warmer climate can at the same time attract visitors. Either because it gets warmer in Sweden or

because Sweden is a cooler alternative to holiday in when other parts of the world get warmer.

Changes in sea temperature and salinity affect fish stocks and conditions for recreational fishing,

and in Skåne, for example, land subsidence together with sea level rise can contribute to

increased beach erosion. Extreme weather and the establishment of invasive species as a result

of climate change can also have a negative impact on recreation.

Environmental impacts and impacts linked to offshore wind energy

Recreation is a use in the marine spatial plan that can generate environmental effects and also

be affected by other uses. Outdoor activities need access to a healthy sea, but the activities can

also have a negative impact on the environment. Motorised traffic at sea contributes to emissions

and underwater noise, as well as various types of antifouling paint can contribute to pollution. The

construction of docks and ports affects valuable shallow ecosystems, and coastal recreation

causes littering. Further examples are the addition of nitrogen and phosphorus discharges from

holiday homes' wastewater that contribute to eutrophication. The effects of pressures vary

between both location and time (Moksnes et al., 2019; Törnqvist et al., 2020).

Coastal recreation and outdoor activities can be affected by marine spatial planning guidance on

uses in various ways, for example directly by restricting access to areas for the benefit of other

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uses, such as shipping, defence or energy extraction, but also indirectly through visual impact

and interference. For offshore wind turbines, the public is mainly concerned about the potential

negative impact on outdoor activities on the coast, despite the fact that they would rather see

offshore wind energy than on land (Prince et al., 2024). The distance between the coastline and

wind turbines is of great importance. However, the perception of the visual impact of wind power

is subjective and does not by definition have to be negative. Despite some negative perceptions

of the visual impact of offshore wind power, there are also positive perceptions of development

and contribution to sustainable development and energy independence. Research also suggests

that tourists who engage more in outdoor activities tend to have more positive views about wind

power (Prince et al., 2024, Bolin et al., 2021).

An energy area that overlaps with an recreation area risks restricting or displacing people from

staying there. This applies mainly to recreational boating and recreational fishing. An energy area

can be a real obstacle and increase the risk of recreational craft that, for example, need to enter

land quickly in bad weather conditions or other emergency situations or are forced to take

alternative routes. There are different rules for how close different boats may come to an offshore

wind farm, and there are also uncertainties linked to insurance issues and rescue at sea that are

relevant to consider in terms of consequences for recreational boat traffic. Indirect forms of

impact can be that the energy area interferes with the experience itself, either through visual

impact or interference from noise and increased traffic, but also linked more to direct impact in the

form of navigational interference from light and reflections. The extent of the impact can primarily

be influenced by the experiential values and natural conditions that exist in the area. Experiential

values that risk being particularly affected by energy establishment are pristineness (absence of

interventions in the landscape), stillness and silence, an appealing landscape image with a view

of the landscape and water, and whether the landscape is varied or unique. The degree of impact

may also vary depending on how exploited the landscape is in general. Most of the coastal nature

areas are currently rated to have very good sound environment classes (Noise forecast, 2024).

When offshore wind power is established, this classification can potentially be changed to an

inferior sound environment classification for coastal natural areas.

Impact during construction, operation and decommissioning

Table 10. Shows the type of impact from offshore wind power in relation to recreation during different phases, as well as possible consideration measures for planning and planning that can reduce negative effects and consequences.

Phase Type of impact Possible consideration measure

Facility Increased traffic

Noise

Location and design of the wind farm, as well as aspects such as height of the turbines.

Clear transit passages and safety distances

Operation Visual impact of wind turbines

Visual impact of obstacle lighting

Limited availability for pleasure boats

Custom obstacle lighting.

Settlement Increased traffic No specific measures.

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Tourism

Current situation, conditions and development

The coastal tourism industry is a nationally significant industry and has enjoyed steady growth

since the early 2000s. Tourism’s contribution to Sweden’s GDP has been around 2.5 per cent for

a long period (Swedish Agency for Economic and Regional Growth, 2022). The pandemic years

had a negative impact on the tourism industry, but according to accommodation statistics, they

appear to have recovered to levels comparable to those in 2019 (Swedish Agency for Economic

and Regional Growth, u.y.). For many municipalities, the tourism industry accounts for an

important part of the local economy (Boverket, 2024). Compared to other industries, the tourism

industry employs more women, young people, the low-educated, low-income earners and people

with a foreign background (Sweco, 2023).

Marine tourism consists, for example, of trips by cruise ships or passenger ferries, overnight stays

either in coastal hotels or in holiday homes, as well as activities such as recreational fishing,

swimming, diving and boating (Söderquist et al., 2012). More than 50 per cent of the number of

guest nights in Sweden were spent in the coastal area (the Swedish Agency for Marine and

Water Management, 2023c), indicating that marine and coastal tourism is a significant part of the

national tourism industry. The tourism industry is the maritime industry that grows the most in

relation to other more industrially oriented maritime industries (Swedish Agency for Marine and

Water Management, 2023c), and it is also the maritime industry that is the largest in terms of

employment (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2018b). The coastal and

marine tourism industry is often linked to the natural environment, and is dependent on good

environmental status of the marine environment and the production of cultural ecosystem

services (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2024a). Marine tourism is one of

the economic activities affected by a deteriorating marine environment. Good environmental

status in the sea is positive for the ocean's ability to deliver ecosystem services, which is a

prerequisite for people's experiences at the sea. In the socio-economic impact assessment of the

first action programme for the marine environment from 2015, an estimate was made showing

potential incremental benefits to the marine tourism sector of SEK 4.9 billion per year for a

scenario where good environmental status is achieved in the marine environment (Swedish

Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2015c). The attractiveness of a coastal area for both

residents and visiting tourists is also dependent on the experiences of individuals, such as the

presence of cultural environments and visual aspects of nature and landscape (LTU, 2023).

Areas that in their entirety are of national interest are dealt with in Chapter 4 of the Environmental

Code (1998:808). Through Chapter 4, Section 2 of the Environmental Code, large parts of the

Swedish coast are of national interest for mobile recreation and tourism, meaning that these

interests must be taken into account in particular when assessing the admissibility of

development companies or other interventions in the environment. There are points of contact for

aspects that are important for recreation and those that are important for the tourism, good

accessibility, good water quality and a rich plant and animal life are a couple of examples. Values

that form the basis of tourism are in many cases strongly linked to values for recreation but also

the landscape and the natural and cultural environment values that exist there, which means that

other national interests are also of importance to the tourism industry, such as Chapter 3, Section

6 of the Environmental Code concerning recreation, nature conservation and cultural environment

conservation. National interest claims relating to commercial fishing may also have some

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significance for the tourism industry linked to recreational fishing. Areas that are attractive to visit

are important for regional development through the tourism industry. In Sweden, there are

recreation policy objectives whose purpose is to support people's opportunities to spend time in

nature and exercise recreation. One of the ten objectives is of particular relevance to the tourism

sector, Sustainable regional growth and rural development. The goal means that outdoor

activities and tourism contribute to strengthening local and regional attractiveness and contribute

to strong, sustainable development and regional growth (Naturvårdsverket, 2023b). Clarifications

in the case concern, for example, an expanded market for nature and cultural experiences,

improved infrastructure and accessibility, and the promotion of sustainable business.

The tourism industry is expected to continue to grow and develop. An increased amount of

visitors can mean an increased pressure on the environment in the form of physical pressure,

disturbance of plant and animal life, littering and emissions to water and air. Digital and

technological development can both contribute to the pressure by increasing accessibility to

different areas, but also contribute to a lower impact by, for example, offering simulated

experiences that reduce the need for physical presence.

Climate change may affect the tourism industry. A warmer climate on the continent can increase

interest in the relatively cooler climate that Sweden can offer and thus account for increased

tourism (Tillväxtverket, 2024). While, for example, sea level rise and coastal erosion can generate

a negative impact on the tourism industry (Boverket, 2024).

Environmental effects and impacts linked to offshore wind power

Tourism can, in different ways and to different degrees, have a negative environmental impact

through activities that generate marine litter, physical loss, physical or biological disturbance,

nutrient inputs and emissions to air and water.

Offshore wind power can affect the hospitality industry and tourism by creating a visual impact.

This can be perceived as negative, especially in areas that are considered to be scenic, where

free horizons and views towards the open sea are distinctive. Another visual aspect is light

pollution, especially during the night. The extent of the visual impact depends to a large extent on

the visibility of the wind turbines. According to a research review done by Luleå University of

Technology to investigate the effects of offshore wind power on the tourism industry, it is

concluded that a distance of 35 kilometers should be enough to minimize predominantly negative

experiences from the visual impact of offshore wind power (LTU, 2023). Whether the impact is

actually negative or possibly positive depends on the perception of individuals. According to a

report from Vindval, which examined the impact of wind power on nature tourism and experience

values, wind turbines generally do not deter tourists from visiting a destination (Prince et al.,

2024). The results showed the importance of previous opinions about wind power and how it

affects attitudes, feelings and behavioral intentions around areas with visible wind turbines. The

study further suggests that tourists who engage in a physically demanding outdoor activity are

less likely to notice the wind turbines. The results are based on studies on onshore wind power

and a research project to better understand how offshore wind power affects tourism has begun

and will be presented in early 2027.

Previous studies on offshore wind power show that some perceive wind turbines as elegant and

as positive for sustainable development (LTU, 2023). Factors such as age, level of education and

attitude towards offshore wind power can affect an individual's perception. Furthermore, those

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with previous experience of wind farms tend to be more positive. There are also examples of how

wind power establishments have become part of the local tourism industry, with, for example, a

tour boat out to the wind farm (Glasson et al. 2021). Studies have also shown that people who

engage in recreational fishing have positive experiences of wind farms, the explanation for this is

that they are displacing commercial fishing (LTU, 2023). Further studies conducted on offshore

wind have shown that visual impacts from nearby wind power do not affect the choice of holiday

location for a majority of respondents (Scottish government, 2022; Teisl et al., 2018). However, a

few indicated that they would choose not to visit an area built with offshore wind power. Studies

have also been able to show that a majority of those who respond that they would refrain from

visiting one beach because of visible wind turbines would choose to visit another beach instead

(LTU, 2023). From a national perspective, such relocation does not therefore constitute a

negative impact on the tourism industry, but on the other hand there is a risk for individual

businesses from a local perspective. At the same time, the establishment of offshore wind power

is expected to lead to increased local and regional energy production, which is positive for the

regional industry as a whole, but also for parts of the tourism industry.

The marine spatial plans do not directly guide the use of tourism, but there is guidance for

outdoor activities and cultural environments, which also concern areas that are important for the

tourism industry. Furthermore, there is a general analysis of the potential impact of the marine

spatial plan on the tourism industry in each marine spatial plan area. Through an ecosystem

services analysis, it is also made visible how the environmental effects highlighted in the

assessment can in turn affect ecosystem services that are also of importance for economic and

social interests. The tourism industry is an example of such an interest, in which cultural

ecosystem services in particular are important.

Defence

Defence is activities that are needed to prepare Sweden for war. Defence consists of military

activities (military defence) and civilian activities (civil defence). Civil and military defence are

mutually reinforcing. Civil defence refers to the civilian activities that authorities, municipalities,

regions, individuals, companies, voluntary defence organisations and civil society, among others,

take to prepare Sweden for war. Military defence refers to the activities carried out by the Armed

Forces with the support of defence authorities, parts of the voluntary defence organisations, as

well as parts of the defence industry and other relevant parts of the business sector, in order to

act as a deterrent to war and to prepare Sweden for war.

State of play and environmental impact – military defence

The Swedish Armed Forces is the sectoral authority for the military component of the defence in

accordance with ordinance (1998:896) on land management and shall therefore appoint national

interest claims for areas needed for the military installations of the defence (according to Chapter

3, Section 9 of the Environmental Code). These areas include shooting and training grounds,

airports, marine exercise areas and technical systems and facilities that need to be protected

from influences that may restrict the activities of the armed forces. The Swedish Armed Forces'

claims also include the activities of the Swedish Defence Radio Establishment, the Swedish

Defence Research Agency, the Swedish Defence Materiel Administration and the Swedish

Fortifications Agency. There are also national interest claims that are covered by secrecy and are

classified and therefore cannot be reported on an open map or in any other way. The Swedish

Armed Forces' main task is to defend Sweden and allied states against armed attack on the basis

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of collective defence within NATO (Regulation 2007:1266). Furthermore, the Armed Forces shall

promote national security, support civilian defence activities and identify external threats to

Sweden.

The activities of the military defence can affect areas in the marine spatial plans, but it is also an

interest that can be greatly affected by wind power installations. Military exercises conducted in

designated areas, both below and above the water surface, cause pollution by the introduction of

metals into the marine environment. In addition to physical impact, firing and explosive drills, as

well as to some extent aircraft and ship drills, cause underwater noise. The impact on marine life

varies; during spawning periods for fish and breeding and incubation periods for birds, the impact

on wildlife may be more severe. However, the Swedish Armed Forces have a need to exercise

even at these times and have therefore developed a marine biological calendar to be able to plan

exercises with regard to marine life.

Impact linked to offshore wind energy

In terms of the impact of energy expansion, there are both positive and negative potential

consequences. For the Armed Forces, security of energy supply is of great importance, and

robust energy supply is also one of NATO's basic requirements. Energy supply is thus relevant

for the defence, and even the military part of the defence is expected to electrify parts of its

operations in the longer term (Nykvist & Mårtensson, 2021). The open national interest claims

that are designated for the military part of the defence in marine areas can be, for example,

marine shooting areas, blasting areas and marine exercise areas that are used to maintain and

develop the capability for armed combat at sea. Marine exercise activities need to be able to be

carried out in different sea areas with different hydrological and topographical qualities, such as

varying depths, bottom formations, turbidity and salinity which can affect navigation, visibility and

other aspects. There needs to be a variation in areas corresponding to different types of

conditions in Sweden's territory, which also includes weather conditions and proximity to coast

and land.

Each designated energy area constitutes a unique restriction on the military defence's ability to

use both the situation and the natural conditions, which needs to be assessed by the responsible

experts in a holistic perspective. Furthermore, large parts of the marine exercise areas are also

used as air exercise areas, which means that freedom from obstacles is a prerequisite.

Consequences for the military defence of wind power installations in sea areas also include a

challenge regarding the safety of both own operations and civilians staying within or near the

exercise area.

The national interests that are classified in accordance with Chapter 15, Section 2 of the Public

Access to Information and Secrecy Act (SFS 2009:400) may include infrastructure relating to

signals intelligence, telecommunications and surveillance of air and sea space. Wind power

installations may affect technical systems such as reconnaissance radars, weather radars, radio

communications, signal reconnaissance and underwater sensors (Odell et al., 2022). (The term

"military part" also includes civilian authorities that support the Armed Forces, such as the

Swedish Defence Research Agency (FOI), the Swedish Defence Radio Establishment (FRA), the

Swedish Fortifications Agency and the Swedish Defence Materiel Administration (FMV)).

The consequences for the defence's operations of an individual energy area can vary between

very serious damage to the fact that the consequences are so mild that coexistence is possible

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under specific conditions and with certain consideration measures. The Swedish Defence

Research Agency (FOI) has, on behalf of the Swedish Armed Forces and the Swedish Energy

Agency, proposed measures that could lead to increased coexistence between wind power and

military defence activities; the measures fall within the categories of strategic planning and

geographical location of wind power in areas that do not affect the military component of defence

(Odell et al., 2022). The report presents international examples of consideration measures for

coexistence that are not applicable in a Swedish context at present. The Armed Forces’

assessment is that a developed planning process is the most appropriate option to support

coexistence between the Armed Forces’ interests and offshore wind energy development

(Swedish Armed Forces, 2022).

Impact during construction, operation and decommissioning

Table 11. Shows the type of impact from offshore wind power in relation to defence during different phases, as well as possible consideration measures that can reduce negative effects and consequences.

Phase Type of impact Possible consideration measure

Facility Increased traffic Adapt to the activities of the defence

Operation Limits airspace and affects technical equipment

Possibility for air traffic controllers to regulate the operation of wind turbines

Development of technical solutions in the Armed Forces' systems, and wind turbines.

Settlement Increased traffic Adapt to the activities of the defence

Civil defence and the impact of offshore wind power

Sweden's civil preparedness is about the ability to prevent and manage disasters, crisis

situations, danger of and war. The capacity is created throughout society, by authorities,

municipalities, regions, businesses and volunteers in the population. The Swedish Civil

Contingencies Agency (MSB) is responsible for identifying claims of national interest. The

national interests of the civil defence can complement other national interests where, for example,

a port that is not particularly important in terms of, for example, commercial fishing, can have a

strategic and important role in the event of war.

Offshore wind power can directly or indirectly affect the conditions of civil defence in various

ways. Access to energy is a prerequisite for Sweden's preparedness. Offshore wind energy is an

important component of the energy transition and has the potential, through its spread, to create

a secure energy supply that contributes to a stronger civil defence.

The proposed energy expansion could also have an impact on the preparedness of the civil

protection sector and on the protection of civilians, in particular at sea. The Swedish Civil

Contingencies Agency is the sector responsible authority and the preparedness sector also

includes the Coast Guard, the Swedish Maritime Administration, the Swedish Police Authority,

SMHI, the Swedish Radiation Safety Authority and the county administrative boards. Offshore

wind turbines and other fixed installations are physical barriers to shipping, which can increase

the risk of accidents as well as possibly complicate rescue operations in the vicinity of the wind

farms. At present, it has not been investigated how an individual park could affect the civil

defence related to sea rescue operations. The design of the park, the height and distance

between wind turbines are factors that affect the possibility of carrying out rescue operations.

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Furthermore, there are uncertainties that large-scale wind farms are a new phenomenon in

Swedish waters, knowledge, skills and experience regarding how the parks affect locally, how to

navigate around them and where it is safe to anchor when needed.

The wind turbines may affect ocean currents (study on the hydrological impact of wind power is

ongoing in collaboration with SMHI, delivered in autumn 2024), which in turn could affect how

chemicals or oil spread in the event of an accident.

Risks linked to offshore wind energy and the security situation

The security situation is influenced by several different factors, of which energy is an integral part.

The Swedish Armed Forces notes a complex external development and an uncertain threat

picture in various domains. Russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine has affected the security

situation and made events more unpredictable, including rapid technological developments and

the cyber-information environment, which pose new security policy challenges.

Energy is an integral part of geopolitics and a shift from fossil to renewable energy provides in

some respects more secure energy access, but also creates new dependencies and security

risks. Just as fossil energy sources have been used as a tool for political pressure, offshore wind

power can also create new dependencies that can affect the security situation and create

corresponding geopolitical power struggles as those associated with fossil resources.

Sweden's entry into NATO places new demands on capacity expansion and capability

development that could be affected by large-scale offshore energy expansion. The Armed Forces

are facing the most extensive rehabilitation in 50 years, which means that access to a stable

energy supply is essential, but also that security risks and obstacles to development are

minimized. Large-scale offshore wind power can pose both obstacles and security risks, and the

consequences of proposed energy areas from a security policy perspective need to be analysed

and assessed by the Swedish Armed Forces and other relevant authorities.

In the construction of offshore wind turbines, exploitation of the seabed takes place, both when

anchoring the turbines and when cabling to land. According to the Swedish Armed Forces, the

exploitation of the seabed poses increased security risks as there are several types of critical

infrastructure (Swedish Armed Forces, 2024). Digitalization has made society very vulnerable to

disruptions in electricity and IT networks, sabotage of infrastructure such as power cables, fibre

cables and underground pipelines can have serious consequences and also constitute strategic

targets for attackers.

The Swedish Armed Forces sees risks that a significant part of Swedish energy production, with

associated infrastructure and transmission capacity, may in the future take place outside Swedish

territory (Swedish Armed Forces, 2024). Fourteen energy areas are listed in whole or in part in

the territorial sea and ten areas in Sweden's exclusive economic zone. Areas in the territorial sea

and the exclusive economic zone account for 20% and 80% respectively of the total area used for

energy extraction in the proposal. The expansion of energy production in the Swedish exclusive

economic zone poses challenges and difficulties, as well as for other critical infrastructure, when

it comes to protecting and monitoring this infrastructure.

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Shipping

Current situation, conditions and development

Shipping is an important part of Sweden's transport infrastructure and a significant engine for the

country's industry and economy. For domestic freight transport, shipping accounts for about one

third of transport measured in tonne-kilometres. The dominance of shipping is even more

pronounced in foreign trade, where around 90 per cent of export goods are transported at least

partly by ship (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management 2024). It plays a significant

role in Sweden's trade and accounts for about 70 per cent of Sweden's foreign trade

(Sjöfartsverket, u.å.). As an example, in 2023 160 million tonnes of cargo were handled over

Swedish quays, 87 % of all cargo handling in Swedish ports concerned international cargo

(Traffic Analysis 2024).

Passenger traffic is also significant. Annually, ships and ferries transport people to and from

Swedish ports and in 2023 approximately 22 million passengers travelled from Sweden to a

foreign port (Traffic Analysis 2024). Traffic is vital for both international connections and domestic

transport between islands and the mainland.

Maritime transport has a broader meaning beyond transport, based on aspects such as:

• Security of supply; It is critical for the civilian defence’s supply chain needs and

constitutes an important societal function in both everyday life and crisis (Swedish Civil

Contingencies Agency 2021).

• Economic importance; The maritime industry has annual sales of approximately SEK 85

billion and accounts for approximately 1.7 per cent of total net sales in the Swedish

business sector.

• Regional development and employment: Shipping is concentrated in the metropolitan

regions of Gothenburg, Stockholm and Malmö/Helsingborg, where it serves as an

important industry and employer. For coastal municipalities, ports and shipping are often

a central part of the economy. This includes, among other things, cargo handling and

supply chains, such as for raw material-intensive export industries.

• Regional development and accessibility. Shipping is also important in terms of

accessibility, accommodation and service. For example, freight and passenger ferry

services are important for tourism and commuting, within and between municipalities and

in some cases also between countries.

• Shipping also has the potential to become an important part of a long-term sustainable

transport system.

Shipping is thus of national interest and national interest claims for shipping are identified by the

Swedish Transport Administration. National interest in shipping includes both ports and shipping

lanes that are considered to be of national importance. The vessels operate mainly in an

extensive network of shipping lanes and routes, as well as in adjacent areas based on suitability,

for example, depending on weather conditions and destination.

Gulf of Bothnia

For the plan area, maritime traffic is slightly less intensive, compared to other plan areas, but

still frequent and important traffic to ports and shipping routes takes place within the plan

area and between Sweden and Finland. For example,Norrland's industries rely heavily on

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maritime transport to reach consumers in Sweden and abroad, with extensive traffic to both

Swedish and Finnish ports. Maritime transport in the plan area, especially in the North Bothnian

Sea and the North Kvarken, faces several challenges:

Navigation conditions

Limited manoeuvrability due to depth conditions and narrow passages. Multiple Traffic Separation

Systems (TSS) to manage complex waters.

Winter conditions and winter navigation

During normal winters, the entire Bothnian Bay and large parts of the Bothnian Sea, including the

North Kvarken, freeze. Ice formation does not usually extend to the entire southern part of the

Gulf of Bothnia during normal winters. Winter conditions place high demands on the adaptability

of shipping and icebreaking operations. Ice formation in the Gulf of Bothnia requires flexibility for

shipping, with the need for large areas and alternative shipping routes. Extensive wind farms can

pose a particular challenge for winter navigation, as they can limit the necessary flexibility. This is

particularly relevant for freight volumes to and from ports in northern Sweden (Ringsberg et al.,

2024).

There are uncertainties about how offshore wind farms can affect the nature of sea ice and ice

formation, and potentially indirectly affect winter navigation and icebreaking. Indirect effects

based on the impact on winter navigation, icebreaking and aggravating operations can lead to

cost increases. These can affect both the shipping industry and related industries, as well as

public activities including costs for maintaining shipping lanes and transport functions (Ringsberg

et al., 2024).

Baltic

Shipping in the Baltic Sea is extensive, with several important ports along the coast but above all

several international shipping routes. The ship traffic goes to the mainland coast, Gotland and

further north, east and south, to both Swedish and foreign destinations. West of Gotland, traffic

with Swedish destinations dominates, while international traffic to and from the Gulf of Finland

and the Baltics, but which often does not dock in Sweden, is more prominent south and east of

the island.

For vessel traffic in and out of the Baltic Sea, there are three alternative sea routes: Öresund, the

Kiel Canal and the Great Belt. The busiest maritime route is the Öresund route, which runs

through the southern Baltic Sea along the southern coast of Sweden in traffic separation systems.

Traffic through Öresund is limited by Flintrännan's minimum depth of about 8 meters at mean

water, with a maximum recommended draught of about 7 meters. The fairway is also limited by

the height limit under the Öresund Bridge, which is 55 metres above Flintrännan. Larger and

deeper vessels therefore mainly use the route through the Great Belt, which has a higher height

limit of 65 metres.

Skagerrak/Kattegat

Maritime traffic in Skagerrak/Kattegat is of great importance for Swedish foreign trade, with two of

the country's largest ports: Port of Gothenburg and Port of Brofjorden. The Port of Gothenburg

handles almost 30 per cent of Sweden's foreign trade and accounts for half of the country's total

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container traffic (Port of Gothenburg, u.y.). The marine spatial planningarea is traversed by

several shipping routes;

- From Oslo in the north to Kattegat in the south

- In to the coast and out past Skagen towards Skagerrak/Kattegat

- Through Kattegat and Öresundto and from the Baltic Sea

Kattegat is particularly important for maritime traffic as it is one of only two routes into the Baltic

Sea for large vessels. However, this traffic does not go mainly to Swedish ports, but to other

countries in the Baltic Sea. There are shipping routes throughout the sea area, both on the

Swedish and Danish sides. In the southern part of the area, outside Stora and Lilla Middelgrund,

ships must choose between Öresund and Great Belt. Both of these passages limit the height and

draught of the ships, with the Great Belt Bridge as a special height limit.

To increase safety in the shallow waters of Kattegat, new traffic separation regulations were introduced in 2020 on both sides of the offshore banks, following a decision by the International Maritime Organization in 2018. (International Maritime Organization, 2018). For further information on spatial analyses of shipping, see the Lighthouse report Maritime

Interest in Sea Space in the Light of Increased Wind Power Expansion (Hjerpe Olausson, J. et

al., 2024).

Environmental and other impacts

Maritime transport contributes to several environmental pressures affecting both the marine

environment and the atmosphere:

- Emissions to air and water

o Fuel combustion involves both emissions of pollutant gases such as sulphur dioxide,

nitrogen oxides, particulate matter, as well as carbon dioxide and other greenhouse

gases. International shipping is a rapidly growing source of emissions, and the need

to reduce its climate and environmental impact is today the strongest driving force

behind technological development in the sector (Maritime Administrations, u.y.)

o Other consequences of the operation of shipping are operational oil spills, chemicals,

as well as discharges from kitchens, toilets and cleaning of cargo tanks.

o Ships that also use flue gas cleaners (so-called scrubbers) to reduce their emissions

of sulphur oxides to air have been linked to water pollution and more and more

countries have imposed restrictions on these in recent years (Lunde Hermansson et

al., 2023).

- Noise

o Marine life is affected by the underwater noise caused by ships' engines, propellers

and sonar, as it interferes, among other things, with the communication between

organisms.

- Spread of alien, including invasive species

o Furthermore, there is a risk that ships spread alien species via ballast water and hull

fouling, species that can establish themselves in Swedish waters and outcompete

native species with potentially major consequences for ecosystems.

- Bottom impact

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o Shipping also affects the seabed adjacent to shipping lanes and ports, where

dredging and dumping of dredged materials is ongoing.

Maritime transport is an efficient mode of transport with lower CO2 emissions per unit transported

compared to land transport. Despite this, it also poses significant environmental challenges.

Transport policy objectives aimed at promoting energy-efficient transport can create conflicting

objectives in terms of increased sea-based transport work and impact on the marine environment

(Fridell, et al., 2024). To address these challenges, it is important to develop strategies that

balance efficiency and sustainability in shipping, which may include investments in cleaner fuels

and technologies to reduce the negative environmental impact.

Marine spatial plan guidance on shipping

The marine spatial plan's guidance for shipping is based on national interests and is largely in line

with established shipping lanes and shipping routes. Guidance for other uses, such as energy

extraction, can potentially affect and complicate shipping activities.

Although the marine spatial plan does not explicitly provide guidelines for safety zones, it stresses

the importance of taking these into account on the basis of the specific conditions of each energy

area. It is generally considered that shipping and offshore energy production can coexist,

provided that the right conditions are created and that the safety of shipping is prioritised. This

includes taking into account safety distances to maintain maritime safety as well as complying

with both national and international regulations at sea.

Maritime safety is key to preventing accidents at sea and minimising the environmental impact on

populations, animals and plant life. The need for safety zones and safety distances is specific to

each location and depends on several factors, including spatial conditions, the nature of the

fairway and its use. Factors such as traffic intensity, type and size of vessels and the direction of

the fairway in relation to wind farms affect these needs. Establishing offshore activities, such as

wind power, requires a thorough examination and permit decision that includes specifications for

consideration and safety distances. This is necessary to enable safe coexistence with shipping.

To this end, the Swedish Maritime Administration and the Swedish Transport Agency have

developed specific recommendations (Sjöfartsverket & Transportstyrelsen, 2023). For more

information on the legal conditions, see the Swedish Energy Agency’s report 2023:12 (Energy

Agency, 2023a).

National objectives, regional development and maritime transport

The maritime spatial plans shall contribute to the achievement of national environmental

objectives and integrate industrial policy and social objectives, of which transport policy objectives

form part of the whole. By promoting the objective of marine spatial planning to create the

conditions for regional development and sustainable shipping, the plans offer guidance for

shipping and other uses, such as energy, which supports the National Strategy for Sustainable

Regional Development (Government, 2021b). This strategy covers several priorities and is

implemented in accordance with the Ordinance on Regional Development Work (2017:583).

In particular, the marine spatial planning contributes to the priority of ‘accessibility through

sustainable transport systems’, where guidance on shipping and other uses has a direct impact

on maritime transport supply. This is of great importance to both people and businesses

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throughout the country. The strategy stresses the importance of coordinating activities and

transport infrastructure at local, regional and national level. For further information on marine

spatial planning objectives and the national strategy for sustainable regional development and its

priorities, see Section 6.3.

Maritime transport is also classified by the Swedish Civil Contingencies Agency (MSB) as an

essential activity. These activities are essential to meet society's basic needs and security, which

constitute an important basis for the work on accident protection, crisis preparedness and civil

defence. Activities that maintain or ensure these vital societal functions include ships, ports,

pilotage, icebreaking, ship brokerage, and the operation and planning of fairways (MSB, 2021).

Table 12. Shows the type of impacts from offshore wind in relation to shipping during different phases, as well as possible consideration measures that can reduce negative impacts and impacts.

Commercial fishing

Swedish fishing is conducted in the Baltic Sea including the Gulf of Bothnia and

Skagerrak/Kattegat, and periodically also in Skagerrak/Kattegat and the Norwegian Sea. In the

Gulf of Bothnia, commercial fishing is seasonally characterised by ice-free periods. Both the Gulf

of Bothnia, the Baltic Sea and Skagerrak/Kattegat have different physical and ecological

conditions that affect the presence of marine animal species such as fish and shellfish, which in

turn helps to influence how professional fishing looks in the areas. In the Gulf of Bothnia and the

Baltic Sea, the composition of species changes from south to north as a result of decreasing

salinity, which means that the proportion of marine species decreases. Several commercially

important fish species, such as herring and sprat, are found in all three sea areas, while others,

such as Northern prawn and Norway lobster, are only found in the marine spatial planning area of

Skagerrak/Kattegat.

Fishing also varies over time depending on the species available. While cod was a common catch

in the 1980s, stocks in the Baltic Sea and Kattegat are now at a very low level, which has affected

the regulation of fisheries. For example, directed fishing for cod in the Baltic Sea has been

temporarily closed for several years. Environmental impacts on fish stocks, such as oxygen-free

bottoms in the Baltic Sea and climate change, also affect the opportunities for fishing today and in

the future.

Swedish commercial fishing includes bottom trawling, pelagic trawling and passive fishing with

nets and cages. Commercial fishing is varied, with larger vessels mostly fishing with trawls and

smaller vessels with cages, traps and nets (see Figure 21). Fishing varies both geographically

Phase Type of impact Possible consideration measure

Facility Increased traffic Clear security measures

Operation May affect technical equipment

Increased collision risk

Clear security measures

Development of technical solutions, complementary equipment in wind farm

Settlement Increased traffic Clear security measures

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and over time. Small-scale fishing is normally carried out in more limited areas close to the coast,

while larger vessels move over large areas in and beyond the Swedish territorial sea and

economic zone. The conditions for fishing are affected by the season, but also by the

development of fish stocks and fishing regulations. The total landing volumes and removals of

fish and shellfish from commercial fisheries are governed by the EU's Common Fisheries Policy,

decided fishing quotas and national regulations. National interest claims for commercial fishing

include areas considered important for commercial fishing's access to catch areas, areas

important for spawning and nursery areas, as well as ports for landing and service. In both the

Swedish territorial sea and the exclusive economic zone, there is also extensive fishing from

other EU countries' vessels.

Figure 21. Professional fisheries 2012-2021: Compilation of annual economic landing values for Swedish fisheries for the period 2012-2021: Passive fishing (top left); Pelagic trawl fisheries (upper right); Demersal/bottom trawl fisheries (bottom trawl) (bottom left).

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Commercial fishing in the Gulf of Bothnia is most concentrated near the coast outside the marine

spatial planning area, and in the Southern Bothnian Sea. Fishing is clearly seasonal, as the area

is ice-covered for parts of the year. Economically important species are vendace, herring and

salmon, where fishing for vendace takes place closer to the coast (outside the marine spatial plan

area). Finnish herring fishing is also taking place in the outer embankment areas (Swedish

Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2025).

Fishing in the Baltic Sea's marine spatial plan area accounts for a large proportion of Swedish

commercial fishing in terms of both value and quantity of catches. The main species (2018-2022)

are sprat and herring, following the decline of the cod stock. The area uses both passive and

active gear, with the exception of Öresund, where fishing is conducted exclusively with passive

gear (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2025).

In the marine spatial plan area of Skagerrak/Kattegat, commercial fishing is varied, with the

economically most important species being Northern prawn and Norway lobster. There is also

mixed fishing for species such as haddock and saithe (bottom living), mackerel, herring and sprat

(pelagic).

Environmental Impacts and Surface Claim

Fishing affects the size and structure of fish populations, both for the species targeted and those

caught unintentionally. Further other species and ecosystems are indirectly affected through

interactions in the food chain. Fishing with passive fishing gear can affect birds and marine

mammals trapped in nets, even gear lost in the sea creates problems as they continue to catch

animals long after they are lost. Work is under way to prevent this, for example with regard to wire

material in cages.

Bottom trawling affects the marine environment through species harvesting, by-catch, and

physical damage to the benthic habitats. Pelagic trawling is associated with the same types of

pressure as bottom trawling, with the exception of physical bottom impact. Emissions and

underwater noise are also among the effects of fishing. Action to reduce physical disturbance is

under way through the development of regulations and technical adaptations that reduce, for

example, by-catch and physical disturbance from trawling. The establishment of marine protected

areas with fully or partially regulated fisheries are measures that can be expected to lead to

increased protection of vulnerable benthic habitats and nursery areas for fish and other marine

organisms. Measures to meet environmental quality standards on biodiversity and physical

disturbance of the seabed are a driver contributing to enhanced protection of specific species and

benthic habitats. The ongoing development of fishing gear and methodology to reduce the

environmental impact of fishing is expected to continue, such as the development of selective

gear to reduce by-catch, as well as techniques to minimise damage to benthic habitats (Swedish

Agency for Marine and Water Management 2016c).

Climate change is also expected to affect marine environments and commercial fish stocks and

their distribution, and by extension fishing, through increased water temperature, altered wave,

current and salinity conditions, reduced ice cover and reduced pH in the oceans by 2040 (the

Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management 2025).

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Achievement of objectives, national and municipal interests

The marine spatial plan's guidance on the use of commercial fishing is largely based on national

interest claims. According to the Marine Spatial Planning Ordinance, marine spatial plans are to

contribute to national environmental, economic and social objectives, of which objectives related

to commercial fishing form part of the marine spatial plan’s guidance and the planning objective of

creating the conditions for regional development, as well as sustainable fishing. The plan’s

guidance on commercial fishing should also relate to the national strategy for sustainable regional

development (Government, 2021b). The strategy includes several priorities and the Ordinance on

Regional Development Work (2017:583) contains provisions on regional development work and

the involvement of state authorities in that work. The marine spatial plan’s guidance on the use of

commercial fishing relates to the priority ‘Innovation and renewal as well as entrepreneurship and

entrepreneurship across the country – A competitive, circular and bio-based and climate and

environmental sustainable economy’. Guidance on nature use and particular consideration for

high nature values can have positive effects on the fish resource, thereby favouring sustainable

fishing in the longer term, on the basis that the guidance can contribute to maintaining important

ecosystem services on which commercial fishing depends, see Chapter 2.2.6. Proposal for new

areas with particular consideration for high nature values. For more information on the national

strategy for sustainable regional and its priorities, see Chapter 6.3 Assessment against other

plans and programmes.

Food security is classified as an important social function by the Swedish Civil Contingencies

Agency (MSB). Fishing is included as a function of primary production and refers to the ability to

produce livestock and primary production of feed. Examples of essential activities include

activities and facilities that are necessary to maintain the production of food-producing animals

and fishing. Important activities are important activities for society's basic needs and security and

constitute an important starting point in the work with protection against accidents, crisis

preparedness and civil defence (MSB 2021).

Port activities are important for maintaining the activity of commercial fishing. Some ports are

designated as national interest claims for commercial fishing. Port operations can also be a

municipal interest. Commercial fishing is also important for other municipal interests such as

employment, the opportunity to live and work in coastal communities, cultural and social values,

local identity, tourism, and the preservation of fishing for the future (Waldo S. & Lovén I. 2019).

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Impact during construction, operation and decommissioning

Table 13. Shows the type of impacts from offshore wind power in relation to commercial fishing during different phases, as well as possible consideration measures that can reduce negative impacts and impacts.

Phase

Type of impact Possible consideration measure

Facility Increased traffic Clear security measures

Keeping the areas not worked in open for fishing

Operation Affects fishing opportunities Location of turbines

Development of fishing gear or method depending on the type of fishery concerned

Settlement Increased traffic Clear security measures

Keeping the areas not worked in open for fishing

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Impact assessment of marine spatial plan for the

Gulf of Bothnia

Impact on population and health

The most relevant aspects of the plan to consider when investigating effects on the population

and human health are guidance on energy use, sand extraction and guidance on changing

mileage for shipping. The new plan proposal has not changes in regards to sand extraction and

maritime routes, and the assessment for these uses presented in the sustainability assessment of

decided marine spatial plans in 2019 is still up to date (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water

Management, 2019b). The conclusion of that assessment is that neither the proposed sand

extraction in the Bothnian Bay nor the guidance on shipping posed any health risks to humans.

When it comes to energy areas, the assessment is that the negative health effects that can arise

from visual impact and noise are relatively small, with marginal negative effects on the health of

the population. The potential for positive health effects from renewable energy production and

thereby reduced emissions is also assessed as relatively small. This is because these effects are

indirect and do not have a local effect in the same way as visual effects.

Visual impact and noise

Regarding guidance on energy production, and offshore wind establishment, there are various

aspects that can have an impact on human health. There is only one permit for offshore wind

power in the Gulf of Bothnia. The proposed marine spatial plan will guide a relatively large

expansion of offshore wind power in the Gulf of Bothnia's marine spatial plan area, and several

energy areas are located so close to the coast that they will be visible from land. Visual impact

from both the wind turbines and associated obstacle lighting risks disturbing people both during

the day and at night. However, it is not established to what extent this can lead to direct health

problems, and there is also a subjective aspect where different individuals are disturbed to

different degrees (see section 2.1 Impact on population and health). Effects and influences of

obstacle lighting may need to be investigated especially in the Gulf of Bothnia in relation to the

natural conditions, such as terrain and how light is reflected by ice and snow during the winter

months. The effect of shading is not considered problematic due to the distance from land.

Offshore wind power generates noise, both audible noise and infrasound. Modelling for noise

dispersion in various project applications shows that the overall noise level generally decreases

to 35 dBA within 5 kilometres of the outer boundary of wind farms. Noise modelling is often based

on a worst-case scenario for sound dispersion, where the calculations assume that there is no

natural attenuation of the sound. In the Gulf of Bothnia, there is no proposed energy extraction

area closer than 5 kilometres from coastal settlements (see Figure 22 below). People living in

coastal areas are therefore not considered to be at risk of experiencing harmful or particularly

disturbing noise levels when establishing offshore wind power in proposed energy areas. Just as

for obstacle lighting, there is a need to examine in more detail how sound spreads in winter

conditions in the Gulf of Bothnia.

In the Bay of Gävle there is a cluster of energy areas which means that the risk of cumulative

impact increases. Visual influences, and effects such as noise and obstacle lighting, become

more noticeable and intense. These effects may be limited to some extent by consideration

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measures. At the same time, it is not likely that all the energy areas in the marine spatial plan will

be built on, but rather a number of energy areas and with a certain geographical spread. It would

provide a distribution of negative impacts on population and health across the entire marine

spatial planning area, see section 3.5 Overall assessment for reasoning on potential distribution

of cumulative impacts.

Maritime safety and risk

The proposed energy areas may lead to reduced safety of navigation due to fixed installations

adjacent to fairways. This can lead to an increased risk of shipping accidents, as well as possibly

complicate remediation and rescue work that can indirectly pose a risk to human health.

Reducing Health Hazardous Emissions

There are potential indirect health benefits of offshore wind energy. This is especially true if the

produced renewable energy replaces fossil energy use with health-damaging air emissions. As it

is uncertain where the energy from proposed energy areas will be used, it is difficult to assess the

magnitude of this effect. Effects on air emissions and climate benefits are indirect and long-term

effects of marine spatial plans that in the long term are expected to contribute positively to human

health. In a shorter time perspective, however, local emissions may increase with civil works and

increased traffic, or diversion of ship traffic, this is transitory and the net effect of building wind

power is positive in terms of the potential to replace fossil-based energy carriers, thereby leading

to reduced emissions of greenhouse gases and other airborne pollutants.

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Figure 22. Shows the distance of energy areas to urban areas in the Gulf of Bothnia. Source: Statistics Sweden, 2020.

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Effects on protected animal or plant species and

biodiversity

Birds

In the marine spatial planning area of the Gulf of Bothnia, the greatest risks of impact on birds are

linked to the areas around Finngrunden and North Kvarken. In both cases, the risk of impact on

migratory birds is greatest.

Finngrunden is of great regional importance for resting and wintering seabirds, several of which

are known to be very sensitive to disturbance. When it comes to migratory birds, the autumn

migration past Finngrunden and the southern Bothnian Sea is particularly extensive, with over

100 species and one million individuals of larger birds. In comparison, studies show that the

spring migration includes just under 70 species. Many migratory species are red-listed. In addition

to the passage of larger birds, a presumed very large number of small birds migrate. For species

such as the bean goose, whooper swan, black-throated loon and red-throated loon, a significant

proportion of the populations are estimated to pass through the area from breeding areas in

north-eastern Scandinavia and north-western Russia. For the subspecies taiga geese, the central

migration route for the entire world population over this area is found.

Energy areas B152 and B156 in the Southern Bothnian Sea pose a high risk of impact on

migratory birds and a medium risk of impact on wintering birds, mainly long-tailed ducks and red-

throated loons. Area B149 is considered to have a medium risk of impact on migratory and

wintering birds.

Energy areas B164 and B142 are considered to have a medium risk for migratory birds and a low

risk for wintering birds.

The species red-throated loon and long-tailed duck are typical species of sublittoral sandbanks

and reefs within the Natura 2000 site Finngrunden. The species shall be protected and allowed to

remain in existing viable populations. The conservation of species within the Natura 2000 network

must also be seen in a long-term perspective where the conditions must be in place for the range

of different species to change over time. Ongoing climate change caused by human emissions of

greenhouse gases will result in sharp shifts in ranges that are very difficult to predict more

accurately.

Along the coast there are important breeding, resting and wintering areas for seabirds, which risk

being negatively affected by wind power expansion in the proposed energy areas B152 and

B156. Black guillemot, lesser black-backed gull and Caspian tern, and a high density of white-

tailed eagle are some of the known breeding species in the area, where the lesser black-backed

gull in particular uses the ground areas at Finngrunden for foraging. Particularly important areas

are Lövstabukten and Björns archipelago and the nature reserve Gräsö eastern archipelago. The

archipelago area west of B146 has a rich bird fauna and along the coast there are occurrences of

seabirds. Several protected bird species breed in the area. The energy areas of North Kvarken

are located just north of the very important migratory bird path that stretches northwest-southeast

between Umeå-Holmön and the Vaasa region of Österbotten in Finland, where the crossing of

the sea is the shortest. The migration route is used by several sensitive species of birds of prey

(in particularly high numbers of rough-legged buzzards) as well as common crane, bean goose,

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wader, whooper swan and other fell and taiga species. The energy area B135 is considered to

entail a risk of a medium negative effect, while B108 has a small negative effect on migratory

birds.

On the coast there are to some extent nesting seabirds and birds that stretch along the coast.

There is a risk of some negative impact from wind power establishment in the energy area B108,

albeit small. With regard to the latter area, the proximity to the Holmöarna islands is also

considered to pose some risk to the species that breed there, such as red-throated loons.

In the far north of the Gulf of Bothnia, the coastal area bordering the Haparanda Archipelago

National Park is very sensitive. Several of the islands are bird protection areas, and the national

park has been created partly because the area is relatively unaffected by humans. The area near

the coast is very important for migratory, resting and nesting birds, several of which are

susceptible to disturbance. The bird stretch is expected to occur on a broad front along the coast

and partly over the open sea, and there is some risk that it will be negatively affected by wind

power establishment. The risk is greater closer to the coast, which is why the potential negative

impact is assessed as medium in energy area B111, and small in energy area B113.

Cumulative and transboundary effects

The greatest risk of cumulative effects on birds is in the southern Bothnian Sea, where several

energy areas are located. This applies primarily to energy areas B152, B156 and B149 in the

vicinity of Finngrunden.

Several wind farms are planned on the Finnish side of the Bothnian Bay, which increases the risk

of cumulative effects in connection with the establishment of wind power on the Swedish side

(see section 3.5 Overall assessment). Moderate risk of negative impact on migratory birds if

establishments are established in the designated energy area west of Kokkola (southern part). If

wind power is established in the Vaasa archipelago and surrounding areas, the risk of impact is

considered to be high.

In the southern Bothnian Sea, on the Finnish side, there are several energy areas, all of which, if

built, carry the risk of a major negative cumulative effect on migratory birds. The establishment of

wind power in Åland's archipelagos entails a high risk of negative effects on both migratory,

breeding and wintering stocks. Risks of negative cumulative effects should be taken into account

in the future assessment of wind power projects on both sides of the border.

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Figure 23. Risks of adverse effects on migratory birds in the Gulf of Bothnia. Dark color shows great effect and light color shows little effect.

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Figure 24. Potential negative effect on bird wintering areas of proposed energy extraction areas in the Gulf of Bothnia. Dark color shows great effect and light color shows little effect.

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Bats

In the Gulf of Bothnia, it is primarily the migratory route at North Kvarken where the southern

parts of the energy area B135, but to some extent also B108 can have a negative impact on

migratory bats. Otherwise and generally, the risk of negative impact on bats depends on the

distance from land where energy areas within 10 km of land are considered to be at higher risk.

This provides an overall assessment of the low risk of impact on bats for the marine spatial plan.

Cumulative and transboundary effects

In the Gulf of Bothnia, the risk of cumulative effects on bats is relatively limited. It is in North

Kvarken that there is some risk that B135 and B108, if both are established, may have a

cumulative negative effect on bats.

In the agreed Finnish marine spatial plan, there is an area for energy use southeast of energy

area B135 that is estimated to have a cumulative negative effect together with B135 and to some

extent B108.

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Figure 25. Potential negative effect on bats of proposed energy extraction areas in the Gulf of Bothnia. Dark color shows great effect and light color shows little effect.

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Marine mammals

Occuring marine mammals in the Gulf of Bothnia include ringed seals and grey seals.

Ringed seal

In the Bothnian Bay there is a unique population of ringed seals where the population is stable,

but the species has been exposed to environmental toxins and the reproduction rate is

weakened. According to the latest status assessment in the Marine Strategy for the North Sea

and the Baltic Sea 2024, good environmental status is not achieved for ringed seals or any of the

other two seal species. This is partly due to the fact that population growth, one of the parameters

included in the indicator ‘Abundance and trend of species’, has slowed down compared to the

assessment period 2011-2016 (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2024a). In

addition, its long-term survival depends on the availability of sea ice whose distribution is

threatened by climate change.

Based on current knowledge of the ringed seals reproductive area in the area, the energy areas

B111 and B113 are in the middle of the most important area in the sea basin. The marine spatial

plan is considered to potentially have a major negative effect on seals by affecting the presence

of stable sea ice. The wind turbines themselves can affect the ice and maintenance traffic to and

from the turbines may require ice-free passage.

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Figure 26. Potential negative impact of proposed energy extraction areas in the Gulf of Bothnia on ringed seals. Dark color shows great effect and light color shows little effect.

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The energy areas B108 and B135 in North Kvarken are estimated to have little negative effect on

ringed seals, as these parts of the Gulf of Bothnia are less important as reproductive areas.

Energy areas in the Bothnian Sea are not considered to have any effect on the ringed seal.

Grey seal

Grey seals are found in the Gulf of Bothnia, mainly in the North Kvarken and in the Southern

Bothnian Sea. Like other seal species in Swedish waters, it does not achieve good environmental

status.

Grey seals are considered to be sensitive to disturbance during February to June and to be more

prevalent in coastal areas than out at sea. The more coastal energy area B142 is estimated to

have a potential small negative effect on grey seals. However, effects from the construction

phase are considered to be minimised to negligible levels if protective measures for underwater

noise are taken.

Cumulative and transboundary effects

It is mainly the energy areas B111 and B113 that, if both are established, would have a

cumulative negative effect on the ringed seal.

The Finnish marine spatial plan contains a number of energy areas in the northern Bothnian Bay,

which together with areas B111 and B113 in the Swedish plan proposal are estimated to have a

major negative impact on the population of ringed seals.

Benthic habitats

The benthic habitats in offshore areas and embankments in the Gulf of Bothnia consist of soft

bottoms with clay, but also, especially in the southern Bothnian Sea, a lot of rocks and boulders.

In soft-bottomed areas, bottom-fixed foundations will involve the introduction of a new hard

substrate.

The Symphony results show a small negative bottom effect for the energy areas B107, B139 and

B152. For other energy areas, the result is a marginal effect based on knowledge of existing

nature values and that about 1-2 per cent of the bottom is affected when wind power is

established.

If the bottom conditions are taken into account in the design and construction, it is considered that

negative permanent effects on existing benthic habitats can be avoided for both bottom-fixed and

floating foundations. Assessing the risk of negative effects from cabling is not possible as it is

uncertain how cables would be constructed.

Bottom trawling is not very common in the Gulf of Bothnia. There are therefore no prerequisites to

replace commercial fishing with wind power establishment for a positive local net effect on

benthic habitats.

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Cumulative and transboundary effects

The risk of cumulative negative effects on the benthic habitats is limited to ensuring that local

natural values are avoided during planning. The effects on benthic habitats is considered to be

local and temporary.

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Figure 27. Potential negative effect of proposals for energy extraction areas in the Gulf of Bothnia on benthic habitats. Energy area B152 is expected to have a small negative effect, while other energy areas in the plan are expected to have a marginal effect on benthic habitats.

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Fish and spawning grounds

In terms of effects on fish and fish spawning, the guidance on sand extraction at the shallow of

Svalan and Falken in the Bothnian Bay is considered to have a small negative effect locally on

fish, in particular spawning herring and vendace. The proposed extraction area partly coincides

with shallower spawning grounds out at sea, but not with the species' most important spawning

grounds. Since there are several spawning grounds in the Gulf of Bothnia, the most important of

which are in the coastal zone, the negative effect is considered to be marginal in relation to the

entire marine spatial plan area. It is important to adapt the extraction activities to important

reproduction periods for the fish species in the area.

There is a risk of marginally increased pressure through underwater noise and operational

emissions from shipping in connection with the marine spatial plan's guidance on slightly longer

shipping routes after adaptation to proposed energy areas in the South Bothnian Sea. Given that

the change in marine traffic is relatively small and that fish move in a very large area, the impact

on fish is considered to be marginal.

In the Gulf of Bothnia, there is some overlap between energy areas and spawning grounds,

mainly for herring. The exact extent of the spawning grounds is not always known, which is why

more detailed assessments need to be made for any future wind power establishment. It is mainly

the energy areas located near the coast or on shallower areas that are more likely to affect

spawning areas for herring. In the Southern Bothnian Sea, the conducted Symphony analysis

indicates that energy area B152 has a small risk of impact on spawning areas, while areas B143,

B149, B159 and B160 have a marginal effect on spawning areas.

In North Kvarken, the coastal area B108 risks affecting spawning grounds, and in the Bothnian

Bay the northernmost energy area B111. See Figure 28. As regards the risk of impact from the

energy areas on migratory salmon, this is considered to be low and mainly affect the coastal

energy areas, e.g. B146, B154 and B108. See also section 2.2.4 Benthic habitats.

Cumulative and transboundary effects

If wind farms are established in several of the more coastal energy areas, there is a risk of

cumulative negative effects on both fish spawning and conditions for salmon migration.

The uncertainty surrounding the development of Finnish offshore wind power makes it difficult to

assess the risk of cumulative effects, but in general there is a risk of impact mainly in shallower

coastal waters. As far as migratory salmon stocks are concerned, marine areas in both Sweden

and Finland are important.

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Figure 28. Potential negative effect on fish and spawning grounds of proposed energy extraction areas in the Gulf of Bothnia. Dark color shows more effect and light color shows less effect. White color shows energy area in the zero alternative.

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Impact of proposals for new areas with particular consideration to high nature

values

The plan includes a number of proposals for new areas for particular consideration of high nature

values (so-called small n-areas). These have been developed in a process together with coastal

county administrative boards and the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency. SwAM is

responsible for the final proposals.

The Gulf of Bothnia plan area is generally characterised by a lower proportion of protected areas

as well as fewer areas for particular consideration of high nature values than both the Baltic Sea

and Skagerrak/Kattegat. However, the plan proposal includes a number of proposals for

additional areas for particular consideration of high nature values. The energy areas are B152

west of western Finngrunden and B156 south of Finngrunden. Both areas are proposed for

particular consideration of migratory and wintering birds. The energy area B149 with the

designation small n has been extended to the north, which has expanded the area for particular

consideration.

Ulvödjupet outside Härnösand and Örnsköldsvik is proposed as a new area for particular

consideration of high nature values through areas B123 and B165. Deep soft bottoms and reef

environments are characteristic of the area.

Furthermore, a larger expansion of the areas for particular consideration of high nature values for

the areas has been proposed at and north of North Kvarken. It also confirms the EBSA area over

the North Kvarken in the transboundary Swedish-Finnish waters (EBSA = Ecologically or

Biologically Significant Marine Areas). Area B118 has also been extended to the southwest.

In the northern Gulf of Bothnia, the energy area B111 and the area B112 are proposed for

general use as areas for particular consideration of high nature values. In these cases, especially

for the ringed seal.

The proposals for additional areas for particular consideration of high nature values are

considered to contribute to strengthened particular consideration for both areas with proposed

use of energy extraction and other uses. Together with areas for particular consideration of high

nature values in the adopted marine spatial plan, these are considered to provide a good

complement to the area protection, contribute to green infrastructure and ecosystem services and

sustainable use in the Gulf of Bothnia. Figure 29 shows the areas with nature use and particular

consideration for high nature values within the marine spatial plan area of the Gulf of Bothnia.

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Figure 29. Areas using nature (N) and decided on the respective proposals for new areas with particular consideration to high nature values (n) in the Gulf of Bothnia.

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Effects on land, soil, water, air, climate, landscape,

settlement and cultural environment

Water and air

In terms of effects on air, the assessment refers to changes in emissions of airborne pollutants as

a result of the marine spatial plan guidance. The uses relevant in this context are shipping,

fishing, sand extraction and offshore wind. Wind power partly based on conversion to fossil-free

energy and reduced air pollution related to this. Effects on water as a habitat refer to changes in

the physical and chemical conditions of water as a result of the marine spatial plan guidance on

the different uses.

Turbidity and dispersal of sediments

In the Gulf of Bothnia, sand extraction in the proposed quarrying operations at the shallow of

Svalan and Falken is expected to have a negative effect on water quality locally, as a result of

increased turbidity in the vicinity of the extraction area. The effect is considered to be short-term,

and thus insignificant in terms of the marine spatial plan as a whole, in line with the conclusion in

the environmental impact assessment of the adopted marine spatial plan (Swedish Agency for

Marine and Water Management, 2019a).

Construction of offshore wind power and associated cabling are also activities that are expected

to lead to increased local turbidity and negative local impact on water quality. The turbidity itself

can lead to sequential effects on marine life and particular consideration needs to be given to

benthic habitats and organisms that are sensitive to impacts (see sections 2.3.1 and 2.2.5).

Dispersal of pollutants

During the construction phase, it is important that sediments and surroundings are carefully

examined to avoid the spread of contaminants. Sediments in the Gulf of Bothnia are

characterised by elevated levels of arsenic, which is probably due to high levels in the bedrock

within the catchment area and discharges from point sources (Josefsson, 2022). There are also

other impurities, such as chlorinated paraffins and PFAS (ibid). Sampling and examinations need

to be carried out to avoid stirring up particularly contaminated sediments during constructions

works. Close proximity to environmentally hazardous wrecks and dumped warfare agents can

also mean an increased risk of environmentally hazardous substances and pollutants spreading.

In the Southern Bothnian Sea there are two wrecks that are classified as environmentally

hazardous (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management Environmentally hazardous

wrecks, retrieved 2024 – 12-20), these need to be taken into account in construction and cabling

to avoid the spread of pollution.

There are four national monitoring stations in the Gulf of Bothnia, see Figure 30 below.

Environmental monitoring has been carried out for 16 years. Offshore wind energy establishment

in energy areas B111 and B146 (where permits exist) risks affecting sampling and stations may

need to be relocated, or otherwise taken into account during construction, operation and

decommissioning phases.

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Hydrographic effects

Studies have shown that offshore wind power can affect hydrographic conditions during

continuous operation, both at the surface and at the foundations (Arneborg et al., 2024). The

effects on surface water occur when the wind behind the wind farms decreases, which in turn can

affect currents and stratification in the surface water. The foundations have a small effect in that

they slow ocean currents and create turbulence that mixes different water layers. The effects of

offshore wind power can spread beyond the boundaries of the park and also lead to sequential

and consequences for marine life (see also Section 2.3.1. Water and air). The marine spatial plan

guides the large-scale deployment of offshore wind power in the Gulf of Bothnia, and cumulative

hydrographic effects need to be further investigated, for example with a focus on how changes in

hydrographic conditions can affect algal blooms, oxygen depletion and ice formation. Impacts of

energy expansion in neighbouring countries also need to be considered in terms of cumulative

and cross-border impacts on hydrography and potential second-round effects.

Changes in emissions and air quality

In terms of shipping, the Gulf of Bothnia marine spatial plan proposes an approximately five per

cent longer shipping route through the Southern Bothnian Sea as a result of energy areas B149

and B164. According to the environmental impact assessment of adopted marine spatial plans

(Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2019a), the consequences of the extended

route are marginally increased emissions from shipping and thus marginally worsened air quality

locally.

The establishment of wind power in the proposed energy areas may mean longer distances for

fishing vessels as well, and increased service traffic. However, it is difficult to assess the

magnitude of potential impacts on local air quality as a result of increased emissions. Sand

extraction at the shallow of Svalan and Falken in the Bothnian Bay can also lead to an increase in

air emissions from marine transport during sand extraction and between extraction area and port.

This is expected to have a marginal negative impact on local air quality.

In a longer time perspective, it is possible to reason that offshore wind power has a positive effect

on air quality as it has the potential to replace fossil-based energy sources, which in extraction,

production and combustion worsen air quality.

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Figure 30. Displays marine sampling stations and proposed energy areas, including the zero alternative in the marine spatial plan area of the Gulf of Bothnia.

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Climate

The marine spatial planning guidance on nature protection, particular consideration for high

nature values and energy extraction are the most relevant aspects in terms of climate impact. The

establishment of offshore wind power in energy use areas has the potential to provide society

with renewable and fossil-free energy. The expected negative climate-related impacts of energy

establishment are time-limited and small compared to the contribution of the marine spatial plan

to renewable energy. With the marine spatial plan's guidance on 13 energy areas in the Gulf of

Bothnia, the assessment is that there is great potential to contribute to Sweden's climate goals.

There are both direct and indirect effects in terms of potential climate benefits. The marine spatial

plan’s guidance on nature use and particular consideration for high nature values can indirectly

lead to climate benefits if these areas are protected from interventions that negatively affect the

marine environment, which in turn affects both ecosystem resilience and the ability to store

organic carbon.

Climate benefits linked to energy extraction through offshore wind power

Fossil-free energy production is central to the climate transition by enabling the electrification of

society (Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, 2023b, Government, 2021b). In the long

term, there is a great need for energy supply in the Gulf of Bothnia, partly because of large

energy establishments located in northern Sweden, and because the supply of renewable

electricity is a prerequisite for society to cope with the transition and achieve Sweden's climate

goals. Offshore wind power is a renewable energy that has low climate emissions from a life cycle

perspective (Energy Agency 2023a). The direct climate benefit is that offshore wind power can

replace energy production that has a higher climate impact. Great climate benefits could also be

achieved by using energy as an energy carrier to electrify the industrial and transport sectors,

which today account for a fair share of Sweden's greenhouse gas emissions (Energy Agency,

2024). Indirectly, climate benefits can also arise from the fact that the electricity produced is

exported to other countries, thereby replacing other energy production with higher emissions (see

Section 2.4.1. Energy).

There are several uncertainties and limitations to make a quantitative estimate and calculation of

the climate benefit. Among other things, the final climate benefit depends on how many areas,

and how much of individual areas are realized. It also depends on the method used to estimate

potential energy production. Compared to what is generally used among wind power projectors,

marine spatial planning uses a more conservative calculation of potential energy production. For

the Gulf of Bothnia, the plan is estimated to enable approximately 130 TWh of annual energy

production (see also section 3.4.1). There are several factors that can determine the actual

climate benefit that could result from the plan’s guidance. This may include factors such as how

much capacity there is in the electricity grid and infrastructure, how other energy production and

associated climate emissions are changing and what the electricity demand will look like in the

future.

Chapter 2 (Section 2.3.2. Climate) presents a reasoning to estimate potential climate benefits.

This reasoning was also the basis for calculations made in the previous sustainability report

(Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management 2019b) and is based on comparing climate

impact between offshore wind power and residual mix. The climate impact from offshore wind

power is approximately 11 000 tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent per TWh (Energy Authority,

2021) corresponding to 524 100 tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent per TWh for the residual mix

- 110 -

in 2023 (Energy Market Inspectorate, 2024). Calculations according to the same methodology for

the proposal for a marine spatial plan for the Gulf of Bothnia show that the plan's guidance on

energy extraction has great potential to contribute to climate benefits. The table also shows a

comparison between potential CO2 emission reductions per TWh and Sweden’s total emissions

in 2023 (SCB, 2024). As mentioned above, this is only a calculation example and not an actual

measure of climate benefit, as there are several limiting factors to achieve this climate benefit in

reality. It is reasonable to assume that the climate benefit is initially greater, and decreases with

time when the fossil energy sources have been replaced and phased out. The overall

assessment of potential climate benefits in the Gulf of Bothnia is that the marine spatial plan's

guidance contributes to creating good conditions for climate benefits.

Table 14. Shows results of calculation for potential climate benefit as offshore wind power according to the plan proposal, the zero alternative and the current situation in the Gulf of Bothnia would replace the Nordic residual mix.

In a longer time perspective, and a larger geographical perspective, the establishment and

expansion of offshore wind power also leads to positive effects for the marine environment in

terms of reduced emissions and reduced climate impact.

Changes in emissions

The proposal for a marine spatial plan with energy areas may have an impact on other uses with

a potential impact on greenhouse gas emissions. This applies, for example, to possible changes

in the mileage of shipping and commercial fishing. For the Southern Bothnian Sea, the guidance

on energy use in area B164 changes the fairway for shipping. The cluster of energy areas close

to shipping lanes also means potentially extended mileage for shipping. However, the impact on

greenhouse gas emissions is difficult to estimate, but it is estimated that a limited number of

passages are affected. Extended itinerary has been estimated to a maximum of approximately 15

km based on the plan map and AIS data, which is considered to be of minor importance (Swedish

Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2019b). The stretching of the fairway in the current

marine spatial plan is no different from the decided marine spatial plan, where the fairway is

moved and runs north-east of the proposed energy areas.

TWh Climate impact

Offshore wind energy

(11 000 tonnes CO2-

equivalent/TWh)

Nordic residual

mix (524 100

tonnes CO2-

equivalent/ TWh)

Potential

CO2-

equivalent

reduction

Potential

reduction in

relation to

Sweden’s

emissions in

2023

Existing offshore

wind power in

the Gulf of

Bothnia 0 0 0 0 0%

Zero

alternatives

(permitted

projects) 3,8 44 000 2 096 400 2 052 400 4%

Proposal for a

marine spatial

plan 127 1 397 000 66 560 700 65 163 700 135 %

- 111 -

Installation and servicing of offshore wind power can also involve emissions that affect the

climate, but in relation to the input of renewable energy, these emissions are considered to be

insignificant.

Guidance on nature conservation and particular consideration - carbon sequestration

The marine spatial planning provides guidance on both nature use (N) and particular

consideration for high nature values (n). Marine areas that are protected against disturbances

and impacts can generally be assumed to have better conditions both to deal with climate change

by conserving biodiversity, and better conditions to store carbon as they are to some extent

protected from physical disturbances. There are no data or figures that describe the potential and

ability for carbon sequestration in different benthic habitats and sediments in a Swedish national

context. Norwegian researchers have mapped carbon sequestration in Norwegian marine areas,

and concluded that benthic habitats of different nature have different abilities and conditions to

contribute to carbon sequestration, both in shorter and longer time perspectives. An important

conclusion of the study is that benthic habitats that are left undisturbed have greater potential to

act as natural carbon sinks (Diesing et al., 2024).

In the Gulf of Bothnia there are several different types of benthic habitats, and the marine spatial

plan guides the use of nature, and particular consideration is given to high nature values on a

total area of approximately 38,500 square kilometres, which corresponds to just over 28 per cent

of the Gulf of Bothnia's marine spatial plan area. The largest proportion is made up of areas with

particular consideration to high nature values, and only 6% are protected areas. The proposal for

the area of high nature value has also been extended in relation to adopted marine spatial plans

(see section 3.2.6. Proposals for new areas with particular consideration to high nature values).

Marine spatial planning as such is only a small part of, and has no decisive role in, the ocean

management processes that decide on guidelines for human activities in protected areas.

However, the guidance on particular consideration is considered to be able to contribute

positively to the protection of marine environments to a greater extent than if the guidance had

not been provided. As mentioned earlier, there is no nationwide data or an established method to

calculate or quantify the extent and rate of carbon storage in the Gulf of Bothnia, to investigate

this further can lead to a better understanding of the climate benefits of conserving and protecting

marine ecosystems.

Adaptation to climate change

The guidance for particular consideration for high nature values has taken into account data for

climate refugias for particularly important species such as ringed seals, mussels, eelgrass,

herring and cod (Hammar & Mattsson, 2017). This is to avoid negative pressures on areas that

may be of particular importance in a future climate. In the Gulf of Bothnia, there are climate

refugias for ringed seals, but they are coastal in the Gulf of Bothnia and not within the marine

spatial planning area.

For the Gulf of Bothnia, ice formation is a particularly important condition for many life forms, such

as the ringed seal. Climate projections for the Gulf of Bothnia show that temperature rises and

salinity changes, but also that ice formation and ice thickness will change (see Figure 29 below,

which shows the expected change in the proportion of winters with ice cover and expected

thickness of ice for RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5).

- 112 -

Figure 31. The two upper maps show the expected winter ice extent for RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5 respectively. The two lower ones show the expected ice thickness according to RCP 4.8 and RCP 8.5.

- 113 -

Landscape

In the Gulf of Bothnia, impact on landscape is concentrated to certain areas. It is mainly about the

southwestern part of the Southern Bothnian Sea and the southwestern part of the Bothnian Bay,

but also the northern Bothnian Bay. In the marine spatial plan area, there are three energy areas

that are considered to entail a risk of major negative impact on landscapes: B108 in North

Kvarken and B152 and B156 east of Gävle. Furthermore, three additional energy areas are

expected to have a medium negative effect on landscapes: B111, B135 and B142. These areas

are wholly or partly within the territorial boundary and are therefore relatively close to the coast. In

an energy area, the risk of negative effects on landscapes is assessed as low: B164. B113, B149

and B159 are considered to have marginal negative effects on landscapes and B160 and B161

are not considered to have any negative effect on landscapes. Figure 32below shows the

estimated negative impact for each energy area in the Gulf of Bothnia.

- 114 -

Figure 32. Potential negative effect on landscapes of proposed energy areas in the Gulf of Bothnia. In the energy areas, dark color shows great effect and light color shows little effect. Accumulated visibility from land is shown over the sea and visibility of energy areas is shown over land.

- 115 -

Area-specific assessments

Gulf of Bothnia

Energy area B111 can primarily have a visual impact on areas in the Haparanda Archipelago,

including within the Haparanda Archipelago National Park and the island of Malören. From

Sandskär in the national park it is about 10 kilometers to B111, while from Haparanda's mainland

coast it is about 35 kilometers to the energy area.

Energy area B108 is located closest to about 7 kilometers from the coast and is expected to

primarily have a visual impact on local coastal areas at Bygdeå, as well as the Holmöarna

islands, not least towards the island of Stora Fjäderägg. The energy area B135 can also affect

the Holmöarna islands, but more limited as it is about 22 kilometers away.

Southern Bothnian Sea

In the Southern Bothnian Sea, B142 is estimated to have the greatest impact on landscapes in

the areas in the southern part of Hornslandet, as well as Agön. Despite its generally medium

negative effect on landscapes, the energy area can have greater negative effects locally, not

least on the mentioned areas around Hornslandet and Agön. From B142 to Hornslandet it is

about 8 kilometers.

The energy area B152 has a landscape impact on the coast outside Gävle. Areas that are mainly

affected are those around Fågelsundet and Björn, Billudden, as well as the islands Eggegrund-

Gråsjälsbådan, Lövgrund, Vitgrund, Eskön and Iggön.

The energy area B156 has its greatest landscape impact in the areas of Fågelsundet and Björn,

as well as Norrboda and Örskär on northern Gräsö. From the energy area to Örskär and

Fågelsundet it is about 18 kilometers, while Gävle's coastal parts are about 25 kilometers away.

Other impacts on landscapes

In the Southern Bothnian Sea there is the landscape protection area Öregrund and Östhammar,

which has a direct overlap with the south-eastern part of energy area B156. The same part of

B156 is overlapped by the Coastal Area from Arkösund to Forsmark, which is a national interest

for high-exploited coasts (Chapter 4, Section 4 of the Environmental Code). Along the Uppland

coast there are also landscape protection areas Björns skärgård, Bondskäret, Klubben and

Ledskärsängna which are relatively close to B152 and B156, which may negatively affect these

protections.

Cumulative and transboundary effects

In the Gulf of Bothnia, Finnish areas can be affected by energy areas. In the Gulf of Bothnia, the

B111 can have some negative landscape impact mainly on the islands of Karlö, Ulkokrunni and

Maakrunni. The B135 energy area is estimated to have some negative landscape impact on

Finnish areas in North Kvarken, from the islands west of Kokkola to Björkö northwest of Vaasa

about 35 kilometers away. The marine spatial plan of Åland contains energy areas that may affect

the landscape protection area at Öregrund and Östhammar, which is about 19 kilometres away.

- 116 -

Neighbouring energy areas will have a synergetic cumulative effect on the landscape of the coast

of the south-west Bothnian Sea. From many outlook points along the coast, several wind farms

can be visible in good weather. Based on the number of energy areas, their size, relatively

coastal location and its location along the coast with relatively even distances, the cumulative

impact in the Southern Bothnian Sea is estimated to be large. In the Gulf of Bothnia, the energy

area B108 together with B135 together can produce cumulative effects. The cumulative effects

from the northernmost energy areas are estimated to be small.

Cultural environment

Indirect influence – National interest claims in cultural heritage conservation, Chapter 3, Section

6 of the Environmental Code

In the Gulf of Bothnia's marine spatial plan area, there are five energy areas that are considered

to entail a risk of large negative impact on national interest claims for cultural heritage

conservation: B108 outside Bygdeå, B111 outside Haparanda archipelago, B142 outside

Hudiksvall, and B152 and B156 outside Gävle. These areas are wholly or partly within the

territorial sea boundary and are therefore relatively close to the coast. In another energy area, the

risk of negative effects on cultural heritage management is considered to be medium: B135.

Finally, there is an energy area that is considered to give rise to a risk of a small negative effect

on cultural heritage conservation (B164), three energy areas with marginal negative effect (B113,

B149, B159), and two energy areas with no effect (B160, B161). In addition to B159, B160 and

B161, the marine spatial plan specifies other energy areas in the Gulf of Bothnia with particular

consideration to high cultural heritage values (small-k). The guidance on particular consideration

for high cultural heritage values is considered to entail adaptations of the location and design of

wind farms regarding, for example, the location and height of wind turbines in order to reduce the

impact on the specific cultural heritage sites concerned. Fel! Hittar inte referenskälla.below

shows the estimated negative impact of the respective energy area.

- 117 -

Figure 33. Potential indirect negative effect of energy areas on national interest claims for cultural environment in the Gulf of Bothnia. Dark color shows great effect and light color shows little effect.

- 118 -

Gulf of Bothnia

In the Bothnian Bay, B111 is considered to be able to cause a risk of negative impact primarily on

Malören and Sandskär, which are covered by values such as fishing villages, seasonal fishing

villages, communication environments and archaeological environments. Expressions of national

interest claims include fishing villages, beacon grounds, labyrinths, wrecks, lighthouses, chapels,

jetties and pilot station. In addition to the national interest claims being within the bounds of

dominance/competition (see Chapter 8. Method) from B111, the energy area risks affecting

communication environments where free views are an essential expression. It may also affect

fishing villages where adjacent coastal and marine landscapes are an essential physical

expression.

Energy area B108 is considered to be able to cause a risk of negative impact primarily on Ratan,

Stora Fjäderägg and Holmöns village. These are covered by values such as a composite coastal

and archipelago environment, seasonal fishing villages, ancient and medieval coastal

environment, archipelago village and agricultural landscape. Expressions of national interest

include, among other things, buildings linked to port operations, remnants of war, labyrinths, plots

of land, lighthouses, and an unobstructed view of the sea out from Rataskär. In addition to the

national interest claims being within the bounds of dominance/competition to B108, the energy

area may affect communication environments where free outlooks are an essential expression. It

may also affect the fishing village and coastal and archipelago environment where adjacent

coastal and marine landscapes are an essential physical expression.

B135 is considered to be able to cause a risk of negative impact primarily on Stora Fjäderägg.

The cultural environment includes seasonal fishing villages as well as ancient and medieval

coastal environment. Expressions of national interest are covered by plots of land, a lighthouse,

labyrinths and buildings linked to fishing activities. In addition to the national interest claims being

within the bounds of dominance/competition to B135, the energy area may affect communication

environments where free outlooks are an essential expression. It may also affect fishing villages

and coastal and archipelago environments where adjacent coastal and marine landscapes are an

essential physical expression.

Southern Bothnian Sea

In the Southern Bothnian Sea, B142 is considered to be able to cause a risk of negative impact

primarily on the cultural environments Agö, Drakö, Kråkö and Innerstön, Kuggörens, Bålsö and

Prästgrundets fishing village. The environments are covered by the coastal and archipelago

environment, which through land uplift has different port locations from several centuries as well

as representative 17th, 18th and 19th century fishing harbor. Expressions of national interest

include medieval archaeological environment, harbours, fishing communities, settlements,

cemeteries and chapels. It also includes the maze in Bålsö, Prästgrundets, Kuggörens fishing

village, as well as burial fields with cairns and stone settings in the latter two. In addition to the

fact that these environments are within the bounds of dominance/competition to B142, the energy

field may affect the archaeological environment where free views are an essential expression. It

may also affect fishing villages and coastal and archipelago environments where adjacent coastal

and marine landscapes are an essential physical expression.

B152 is considered to be capable of causing a risk of negative impact on national interest claims

for cultural heritage conservation in Norrlandet, Bönan and Utvalsnäs and Hållen and

- 119 -

Fågelsundet. The national interest claims are described as recreational environments with

parkland and large summer villas from the late 19th century, archaeological environment, fishing

harbours, farmland and village environments with a cluster character. Expressions of national

interest lie, among other things, in the fishing harbours, villas, viking burial fields, cultivation sites,

as well as medieval sites. In addition to these environments being within the boundary of

dominance/competition to B152, the energy area may affect the communication environment and

recreation environment where free views are an essential expression. It may also affect fishing

villages and coastal and archipelago environments where adjacent coastal and marine

landscapes are an essential physical expression.

B156 is considered to be capable of causing a risk of negative impact primarily on the national

interest claim for cultural heritage conservation Hållen and Fågelsundet. The national interest

claim environment is described as a farmed landscape, village environment with cluster

character, fishing harbour and archaeological environment. Expressions of national interest are

linked viking age burial fields, cultivation and medieval sites. In addition to the national interest

being within the bounds of dominance/competition to B156, the energy area may affect the

communication environment and recreational environment where free views are an essential

expression. It may also affect the fishing village and coastal and archipelago environment where

adjacent coastal and marine landscapes are an essential physical expression.

Direct impact

The marine spatial plan area of the Gulf of Bothnia contains a number of registered marine

archaeological sites in both the proposed energy areas and those included in the zero alternative.

Figure 34 shows recorded marine archaeological sites within and outside energy areas.

- 120 -

Figure 34. Risk of impact on marine archaeological sites.

- 121 -

Energy area B159 has the most registered marine archaeological sites in the area with five. B160

and B164 have four, B161 has three, B152 and B156 have two and B108, B142 and B149 have

one each. B111, B113 and B135 have no recorded marine archaeological sites in the area. Table

15 provides an overview of the number of marine archaeological sites for individual proposed

energy areas in the Gulf of Bothnia. Note that the compilation only refers to the sites that are

registered in the Swedish National Heritage Board's Cultural Environment Register

(Riksantikvarieämbetetet, u.y.). Since knowledge of the existence of marine archaeological sites

in Swedish waters is not complete, the establishment of offshore wind power should be preceded

by marine archaeological investigations where there may be marine archaeological sites (County

Administrative Boards, 2024).

Table 15. Number of recorded marine archaeological sites per energy area in the Gulf of Bothnia. Source: The Swedish National Heritage Board's Cultural Environment Register (Riksantikvarieämbetetet, u.y.).

Energy area Number of marine archaeological sites

B108 1

B111 0

B113 0

B135 0

B142 1

B149 1

B152 2

B156 2

B159 5

B160 4

B161 3

B164 4

Indirect and direct impact – Regional value areas

In the Gulf of Bothnia's marine spatial plan area, there are two energy areas that are expected to

have a large negative effect on marine regional value areas: B108 and B142. These areas are

wholly or partly within the territorial sea boundary and are therefore relatively close to the coast.

Three energy areas are considered to have a medium negative impact on value areas: B111,

B152 and B156. Two energy areas are considered to have little negative impact on value areas:

B135 and B164, while three energy areas are estimated to have marginal negative effects on

value areas: B113, B149 and B159. B160 and B161 are not considered to have any negative

effect on value areas. Figure 35 below shows the estimated negative impact of each energy area

on marine cultural heritage values based on the County Administrative Board’s identification of

regional value areas.

- 122 -

Figure 35. Indirect and direct negative impact on regional cultural heritage value areas.

- 123 -

Gulf of Bothnia

B111 is considered to be able to cause a risk of negative impact on the value areas Malören,

Sandskär, Haparanda archipelago and Likskär and Renskär. All areas are sensitive to the

establishment of tall facilities and other visually dominant features. Wreck sites that are sensitive

to possible cabling are registered in close proximity to all value areas. Several value areas have

expressed consideration needs that overlap with the energy area in the form of free lines of sight

and outlooks (County Administrative Boards, 2024).

B108 is considered to pose a risk of impact on cultural environments within the Ratan value area.

In the value area, the view from Rataskär's lighthouse, beacon and pilotage house towards the

open sea is particularly sensitive to tall and large facilities. In the area there are a few registered

wreck sites that require consideration when cabling. Furthermore, the expansion of wind power

within B108 is expected to entail a risk of impact on the value areas Holmön-Stora Fjäderägg and

Ängesön. Free views towards the open sea are important for the understanding of cultural

environments in both areas of value. Registered wreck sites can be found in areas around both

Stora Fjäderägg and Ängesön (Länsstyrelserna, 2024).

Southern Bothnian Sea

In the Southern Bothnian Sea there are a number of value areas that, to varying degrees, risk

being affected by the establishment of wind power in areas B142, B152 and B156. B142 risks

having a negative effect on cultural environments in the value areas Agö-Kråköarkipelagen,

Bålsö-Kuggörarna and Skärså-Prästgrundet. For the value area Bålsö-Kuggörarna there are

visual connections to the open sea. Wreckage sites are registered in and close to both value

areas, which are at risk of being affected by cabling. Furthermore, B142 risks having a negative

impact on the Skärså-Prästgrundet value area. The area is sensitive to the establishment of

facilities that interfere with the experience of the fishing village. A few marine archaeological sites

are registered in the waters off Prästgrundet (Länsstyrelserna, 2024).

B152 together with B156 has the risk of having a negative effect on cultural environments in the

value areas Fågelsundet and Björns lighthouse, Kniven and Sikhjälma. Fågelsundet and Björn's

lighthouse risk being visually affected, especially northeast from Fågelsundet and from Björn's

lighthouse towards the open horizon. Kniven and Sikhjälma include both historical fishing villages,

where the connection between the fishing village and the open sea is of great importance. Since

relatively few marine archaeological sites are registered in these areas, they are not considered

to be sensitive to cabling. B152 also risks affecting the Iggö-Iggöhällan shipwreck area. The

shipwreck area has a dense presence of wrecks that make it sensitive to cabling and other

installations on the seabed. Iggöhällen is sensitive to tall facilities to the east. The value area also

includes the cultural environment type farmed landscape, which is unique within the marine

spatial planning area. B152 also risks having a negative impact on cultural environments in the

value area Norrlandet-Utvalsnäs-Lövgrund-Limön. The value area includes two types of cultural

environment that are rare in the marine spatial planning area, namely summer entertainment

environment and holiday home environment that may to some extent be sensitive to wind power

exploitation. Finally, the B152 is also close to Skutskär, which has industrial environments and

port facilities. However, the area is considered to be less sensitive to the establishment of taller

objects due to its industrial character. In the value area, there are relatively few known

shipwrecks and thus not sensitive to cabling (County Administrative Boards, 2024).

- 124 -

In addition to the impact on the former value areas in the previous paragraph, the B156 also risks

visually affecting Örskär's lighthouse site to the north. The area has links to shipping as well as

an open and barren archipelago landscape that allows for long lines of sight towards the horizon,

making the area sensitive to facilities that interfere with that experience. Consideration is given to

maintaining clear lines of sight northwards. Relatively few marine archaeological sites around

Örskär and cabling is considered possible. Finally, B156 is close to the value area Norrboda-

Söderboda. The area includes fishing villages and archipelago farming, where sight lines

northeast from Gräsö's eastern side are to be protected. In the archipelago there are marine

archaeological sites, which makes the area unsuitable for laying cables without careful mapping

of the marine archaeological conditions (County Administrative Boards, 2024).

Other impacts on cultural environment

Energy areas in the Southern Bothnian Sea can cause negative effects on landscape protection

areas off the northern coast of Uppland, see previous chapter 3.3.3. The Haparanda Archipelago

National Park is located about 10 kilometres from energy area B111. The national park includes

cultural-historical values to be protected, not least the buildings within the park.

Cumulative and transboundary effects

In the Gulf of Bothnia, Sweden's and Finland's offshore energy areas can influence each other's

cultural environments. Despite the fact that all projects in Finland's exclusive economic zone have

been rejected pending new legislation (Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment, 2024),

there may in the future be an offshore wind power area outside Ijo-Simo in the Gulf of Bothnia

along Finland's marine spatial plan 2030 (Finnish marine spatial plan, 2021), which may have an

indirect impact on the value area Haparanda archipelago (20 kilometres away) and the value area

and the national interest Sandskär (26 kilometres away). Further south in the North Kvarken there

is Kvarken's northern offshore wind power area which can have a negative effect mainly on the

national interest claim Stora Fjäderägg and the value areas Holmön-Stora Fjäderägg (28

kilometers away) and Ängesön (23 kilometers away).

For the impact of Swedish energy areas on the Finnish cultural environment, B111 may risk

indirectly affecting cultural environments in Finland, in particular the Bothnian Bay National Park

and cultural environments in Kemi (25 kilometres away). The B135 risks having a visual impact

on the UNESCO World Heritage site Kvarken Archipelago in Finland (22 kilometres away).

The cumulative effects of energy areas on the cultural environment of the Gulf of Bothnia vary,

but are mainly concentrated in the Southern Bothnian Sea. However, the B111 in the Bothnian

Bay can provide indirect cumulative effects for twelve national interest claims for cultural heritage

conservation to a varied extent at a distance of up to 70 kilometers. It is also expected to have

negative cumulative effects on 12 marine value areas. Further south, the cumulative effects from

B108 are expected to affect up to six national interest claims for cultural heritage conservation

and five marine value areas. In the Southern Bothnian Sea, the cumulative effects are expected

to be large from B142, as it can have an indirect negative impact on up to 15 national interest

claims for cultural heritage conservation and twelve marine value areas. The large cumulative

impact is expected due to B142's number of affected cultural environments and its relative

proximity. Furthermore, indirect cumulative impacts from B152 and B156 are expected to be

large. B152 and B156 may have indirect effects for up to 14 and 15 national interest claims for

cultural heritage conservation and up to 15 and 16 marine value areas respectively.

- 125 -

For cumulative effects on specific cultural environments, Ratan, Stora Fjäderägg and Holmöarna

are expected to have greater negative cumulative consequences when establishing wind power

in B108 and B135, based on its proximity. The cumulative effects, based on how many energy

areas can have an indirect impact on cultural environments in the Bothnian Bay, are not expected

to be as large when establishing wind power in B111 and B113. Many cultural environments

along the Gulf of Gävle are expected to have greater cumulative effects when establishing most

energy areas. B142 combined with B164 can be perceived as a larger contiguous area that

covers a long stretch of coastline, which can have a negative indirect impact on cultural

environments at Hornslandet, Agö and Skärså-Prästgrundet. B152 and B156 together give rise to

indirect cumulative effects for a large number of cultural environments along the coasts of Gävle

and Uppland, especially at Fågelsundet, Örskär and Norrlandet.

Below is table 16 showing the total sum of cumulative impacts from each energy area in the Gulf

of Bothnia. The highest cumulative impact on national interest claims for cultural heritage

conservation is B142 and B152 has the highest cumulative impact on marine value areas.

Table 16. Shows cumulative effects in the Gulf of Bothnia from energy areas on national interest claims for cultural environment conservation and marine value areas, based on the number of cultural environments affected, as well as its proximity. The higher the cumulative impact. The method is described in Chapter 8.

Energy area Cumulative impact on national interest claims for cultural heritage conservation

Cumulative impact on marine value areas

B108 50,5 30

B111 76 71

B113 24,5 27

B135 32,5 27,5

B142 128,5 45

B149 10 19

B152 67,5 75,5

B156 60,5 63

B159 8 7,5

B160 0 1

B161 0 3

B164 47,5 27

- 126 -

Effects on the management of water, soil and the physical

environment in general

Energy extraction

Offshore wind power has relatively good conditions in the marine spatial planning area of the Gulf

of Bothnia. Wind conditions in the area are generally good, although slightly lower than the other

plan areas. The plan area has an elongated coastline with relatively shallow water areas, and

relatively lower levels of interest conflicts, compared to other marine spatial plan areas. However,

conflicts of interest also exist to varying degrees within the planning area, such as defence and

nature values. A wind power project in the Southern Bothnian Sea (part of B146) has been

granted a permit, but no installations have yet been built.

Characteristic of the plan area is the ice formation in winter. Maritime authorities have raised the

risk that offshore wind power can affect ice formation, which can make it more difficult for both

shipping and icebreaking. During normal winters, the entire Bothnian Bay and large parts of the

Bothnian Sea, including the Northern Quark, freeze. A particular challenge for the plan area is

thus uncertainties regarding coexistence for energy production and winter navigation, based on

the spatial flexibility considered necessary for accessibility and icebreaking (Ringsberg et al.,

2024), see section 2.4.5 prerequisites and assessment Maritime transport.

The plan's guidance on energy extraction is based on the adopted marine spatial plan, national

interest claims for wind power, planning documents Proposals for suitable energy extraction

areas for marine spatial plans (Energy Agency 2023a), which is handled as a public interest of

substantial importance. The adopted marine spatial plan, national interest claims for wind power

and municipal comprehensive plans have also been taken into account.

The draft marine spatial plan includes 13 areas for energy extraction. Areas for energy production

cover a total area of approximately 6,600 km2, approximately 17 per cent of the plan area and

are estimated to generate an annual electricity production of approximately 130 TWh, based on

assumptions of 5 MW/ km2 and 4000 full load hours per year, see plan document part 6.1 for

further description (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2025). The target for all

marine spatial plans corresponds to a total of 120 TWh in annual production, which means that

not all identified energy areas are assumed to be fully realized in the plan area.

Figure 36 below shows all energy areas in the marine spatial plan, as well as areas in the initial

planning document, Proposals for suitable energy extraction areas, presented in 2023 (Energy

Agency 2023a). The map in the figure also shows a grading of the conditions for energy

extraction for each energy area based on wind and depth conditions. Note that the classification

does not include other factors such as distance to the connection point or other conditions.

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Figure 36. Map of energy areas in the plan proposal, zero alternatives, and initially identified suitable energy areas for energy extraction (Energimyndigheten.2023a), as well as conditions for energy extraction based on wind and depth conditions.

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Area-specific assessments, nature and conditions for energy extraction

All energy areas in the marine spatial plan The Gulf of Bothnia are included in the documentation

on suitable energy extraction areas for marine spatial plans presented in 2023 (Energy Agency,

2023a). The assessment of the respective energy areas and their conditions for energy extraction

has been limited to the assessment of their nature in terms of wind and depth conditions. In a

weight-of-evidence assessment, values for wind and depth are added to a total value on a four-

point assessment scale. For more information see Chapter 8. Method.

Table 17. Grouping, for wind speed and depth indicators.

Group/points Wind speed, medium Depth, medium

1 Less than 8,5 m/s Depths exceeding -70 m

2 Between 8,5 and 9 m/s Between -40 and -70 m

3 Greater than 9 m/s Founder than -40 m

The marine spatial plan consists of three sea basins and the assessment of energy areas is

presented from north to south, see also Table 18 below.

Gulf of Bothnia

The plan provides guidance on four areas for energy extraction.

- In the far north are the two medium-sized areas B111 and B113, with wind conditions

between 8.5 and 9 m/s and where B111 is estimated to have a depth between 40 and 70

meters, respectively B113 deeper than 70 meters.

- The energy area B111 is located partly in the territorial sea of the municipality of Kalix, partly

in the exclusive economic zone. Establishment of wind power is assumed to consist of a mix

of bottom-fixed and floating foundations. For the area, special needs for space and flexibility

for winter navigation, icebreaking and ship traffic to Swedish and Finnish ports have been

noted (Ringsberg et al., 2024). Area B113 is located in the outer sea area, partly in the

territorial sea but mostly in the exclusive economic zone. For the area, wind farm with floating

foundations is assumed.

- To the south of the sea area is the area B108, which is located in the territorial sea and

Robertsfors municipality. Areas have been expanded compared to the adopted marine

spatial plan (Government, 2022a), but are smaller than the area identified as a public interest

of substantial importance (Energy Agency 2023a). The area is located relatively shallow and

is assumed to consist of a wind farm with bottom-fixed foundations.

- At the level of B108, further out at sea and into the economic zone, is area B135 located.

The area is considered to have good wind conditions and depth conditions with depths from

40 to 70 meters. Establishment of wind power is assumed to consist of a mix of bottom-fixed

and floating foundations.

Northern Bothnian Sea and North Kvarken

In the sea area North Bothnian Sea and North Kvarken, the energy area B161 is located in an

exclusive economic zone. Wind conditions are considered to be very good and the depth

rangefrom 40 to 70 meters. Wind farms are assumed to consist of a mix of foundation types. Area

B161 is located next to energy areas B160 and B159 in the South Bothnian Sea.

- 129 -

Southern Bothnian Sea

The plan provides guidance on eight energy extraction areas. The areas are relatively

concentrated. They are considered to have relatively favourable conditions regarding wind and

depth conditions. The relative coastal areas are estimated to have slightly lower wind conditions,

compared to areas further out from the coast. All areas are estimated to be at depths between 40

to 70 meters.

- In the central Bothnian Sea, areas B159, B160 are adjacent to the EEZ, and adjacent to area

B161. Wind farms are assumed to consist of a mix of foundation types.

- The relative coastal areas (B142, B152, B156) are wholly or partly located within the

territorial sea and municipal plan areas. The municipalities concerned are Hudiksvall,

Söderhamn, Gävle, Älvkarleby, Tierp and Östhammar.

- For the area Storgrundet B146 there is a licensed project for the establishment of wind power

and national interest claims for wind power. The area is also listed as an energy extraction

area in the previously adopted marine spatial plan for the Gulf of Bothnia 2022 (Regeringen,

2022a). The area is also specified in the plan as an investigation area regarding coexistence

with shipping.

- In the marine area, two major energy areas are located, B159 and B164, corresponding to

approximately 1,000 and 1,500 square kilometres, respectively.

The concentration of areas in the Southern Bothnian Sea may entail the possibility of synergies in

terms of infrastructure and maintenance, but also the risk of an overall large cumulative impact in

terms of other interests in the area, wind farms among themselves, and capacity for connection

point to the transmission network. With regard to conflicts of interest, see the overall assessment,

as well as the respective assessment aspects and the need for adjustments when establishing a

wind farm.

In the Southern Bothnian Sea there are three investigation areas for energy extraction (B149,

B152, B156). The distribution areas relate to the investigation of uncertainties regarding the

potential impact of the areas on migratory birds. The plan also includes particular consideration

for the interests of defence in all areas, as well as particular consideration for high nature and/or

cultural environmental values for a number of areas.

In the Southern Bothnian Sea, the plan specifies the use of electricity transmission, which applies

to transmission grid cables between Sweden and Finland.

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Table 18. Plan proposal Gulf of Bothnia. Overview of guidance on energy extraction, location and conditions.

Gulf of Bothnia Sea area; North to South

Area

Permits/ Zero- Option

Design ation

Km2

Of which km2 in territorial sea ~22 km (12 NM)

Municipality

Estimated electricity production,

TWh*

Adoption; Typ

wind, Group

Depth Group

Gulf of Bothnia

B111 Efkn

570 280 Kalix

11,4 Bottom- fixed

2 2

Gulf of Bothnia

B113 Efk 480 3 Luleå 9,6 Mix 2 1

Gulf of Bothnia

B108 Efkn

150 150 Robertsfors

3,0 Bottom- fixed

1 3

Gulf of Bothnia

B135 Efk 290 9 Umeå 5,7 Mix 2 2

Northern Bothnian Sea and North Kvarken

B161 EF

440 0

8,8 Mix

3

2

Southern Bothnian Sea

B159 EF

1040 0

20,7 Bottom- fixed

3 2

Southern Bothnian Sea

B160 EF

690 0

13,8 Mix

3

2

Southern Bothnian Sea

B164 Efk

1480 0

29,7 Mix

2

2

Southern Bothnian Sea

B142 Efkn

165 165 Hudiksvall

3,3 Bottom- fixed

1

2

Southern Bothnian Sea

B149 E(utr) fn

550 0

11,0 Bottom- fixed

3

2

Southern Bothnian Sea

B146 (Permits) Efkn

190 190 Gävle, Söderhamn

3,8 Bottom- fixed

- -

Southern Bothnian Sea

B152 E(utr) fkn

180 185 Gävle, Älvkarlaby

3,7 Bottom- fixed

1 2

Southern Bothnian Sea

B156 E(utr)f kn

360 190

Tierp, Älvkarleby Östhammar

7,3 Bottom- fixed

2 2

Total, approximatel y

6 600 1 170 130

* Assumption according to marine spatial plan, 5MW/km2, 4000 full load hours.

Overall description

The marine spatial plan generally has medium-quality conditions for energy extraction and wind

power establishment. Conditions regarding wind are medium, but the areas are located in

relatively shallow areas. A number of areas further out from the coast are considered to have very

good conditions with regard to wind conditions. The coastal areas generally have slightly lower

wind conditions. However, coastal areas are considered to be favourable in terms of distance to

the connection point and transmission network.

The areas of size also have an impact on suitability and investment conditions. The energy areas

vary in size, from around 150 km2 to 1 500 km2, with an average size of around 500 km2, which is

larger compared to other plan areas. The areas, B159 and B164, each cover an area of more

than 1 000 km2.

- 131 -

Depth conditions are important for the feasibility of wind power projects in terms of investment

costs and technology choices. At depths down to about 70 meters, construction is assumed

primarily with bottom-fixed foundations. At greater depths, mainly floating foundationsare

assumed. Bottom-fixed foundations can also be assumed to be relatively more likely to be

realised in the near future, compared to floating foundations, based on the degree of

establishment of the technology and the cost of establishment (Energy Authority, 2023a). The

variety of areas and a relatively high proportion of areas with average depths between 40 and 70

metres mean that the plan can be assessed as relatively favourable for energy establishment

from both a short and a long perspective.

Figure 37 below shows the surface distribution of the areas in terms of depth and foundation

depth. Depths vary within and between energy areas but about 90 percent are located at an

average depth of 40 to 70 meters. Half of these surfaces are assumed to be built with a mix of

foundations, suggesting that depth varies within these areas.

A smaller proportion, about 5 percent are located at the average depth shallower than 40 meters,

remaining just over 5 percent are located at depths greater than 70 meters. Approximately half of

the plan’s energy extraction areas, approximately 3 200 km2, are assumed to be suitable for wind

farms with bottom-fixed foundations. The remaining areas are expected to have a mix of bottom-

fixed and floating foundations.

Figure 37. Distribution of areas for energy extraction (km2), average depth and foundation type.

The distance of the areas to the connection point for electricity distribution is also important in

terms of investment costs. Where actual connection points may actually take place depends on a

number of factors and involves relatively large uncertainties. The distance to the connection point

depends, for example, on the location of the available connection point to the transmission

network, the depth conditions, as well as on the choice of technology and on the design and

possible location of storage and energy carriers, see also method section. Assessment of

distance is not included in the criteria assessment but is shown to some extent taking into

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account whether the energy area is located within the territorial sea or not. If areas are located in

the territorial sea is also relevant due to overlap with municipal planning, which can affect

decision-making and permit processes. In the area of the territorial sea where national, regional

and municipal plans overlap, all plans apply. More than 80 per cent of the area of energy areas is

located in an economic zone, see Figure 38 below.

Figure 38. Distribution of energy extraction areas (km2), territorial sea and exclusive economic zone.

Marine spatial plan, zero alternatives and guidance on energy extraction

Potential electricity production is estimated on the basis of surfaces for energy extraction to be

approximately 6,600 km2 corresponding to approximately 130 TWh, based on assumptions of 5

MW/km2 and 4,000 full load hours. The corresponding area for energy extraction in the baseline

scenario (permitted) is approximately 190 km2. A number of areas of national interest and public

interest of substantial importance for wind farms have been considered incompatible with other

uses. The original planning documents of substantial public interest identified 18 areas suitable

for offshore wind power in the Gulf of Bothnia, with a total area of approximately 9,100 km2.

During the planning process, these areas have been adjusted and some have been excluded

taking into account other interests such as commercial fishing, defence, recreation, cultural

environment and shipping. Total areas for energy extraction in the draft marine spatial plan, zero

alternatives, public interest of substantial importance, national interest claims, and adopted

marine spatial plan, see Table 19 below.

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Table 19. Estimated area for energy extraction in plan proposals, zero alternatives, public interest of substantial importance, national interest claims and adopted marine spatial plan (Government, 2022).

Indicative basis for energy extraction

Gulf of Bothnia, approximate area (km2)

Plan proposal 6580

Zero alternatives (Permitted parks) 190

Public interest of substantial importance, Swedish Energy Agency (2023b)

9 080

- Of which surface in planes; 6 030

National interest claims 1 340

- Of which surface in level, approx. km2 510

Plan adopted 1 520

The plan’s guidance on energy extraction, including consideration guidance, is considered to

contribute to the achievement of objectives for offshore wind energy. The plan is also expected to

contribute positively to increased predictability for the activities concerned, as well as as a

knowledge base for permit processes, regional and municipal planning. The areas that were

initially identified as suitable for energy extraction (the Swedish Energy Agency, 2023a) and

which during the planning process were assessed as not being the most suitable use, mean that

the total area for energy extraction has decreased, which can be assumed to potentially affect

activities in offshore wind power and affect other sectors in plan areas negatively.

Realisation, projects and bidding zones

A prerequisite for realising the marine spatial plan's energy areas is investment interest in the

construction and operation of wind farms. In principle, all energy areas in the plan area are

undergoing permit processes for the establishment of wind power.

Assumptions about potential electricity production and distribution between Sweden's bidding

zones can be made based on projectors applications and specified connection areas. According

to project information and investment data from the County Administrative Boards' interactive

map service Vindbrukskollen (Länsstyrelserna u.y.), approximately 80 percent of the potential

electricity production in the plan area is expected to be connected to bidding zone 2, see Figure

39 below. For more detailed information on electricity consumption and related to bidding zones

and users, see Section 2.4.1. Energy.

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Figure 39. Assumptions on connection bidding zones.

Indirect impact - energy

Guidance on energy extraction in the marine spatial plan may involve indirect land claims for

cabling and other electricity transmission infrastructure and/or various forms of energy storage,

such as hydrogen. In turn, this may entail additional land and water claims and also potential

indirect environmental impacts and additional risk management on shore and land, see section

2.4.1. Energy. The extent of land claims on coast and land, and where these land claims will take

place, depends, among other things, on the type of technology and wind turbines, as well as

connection points or storage forms for each wind farm.

Achievement of objectives, national and municipal interests - energy

The plan proposal for the Gulf of Bothnia contributes to the achievement of the objectives of the

Government's current assignment to amend marine spatial plans for offshore wind power and

national energy policy objectives, as well as national targets on climate and fossil-free electricity

supply. It is also expected to contribute to the transformation of the industrial and transport

sectors and to strengthening the conditions for employment at local and regional level, see

Section 2.4.1. Energy.

With regard to essential functions and activities, according to national classification (MSB, 2021),

the plan proposal is expected to contribute to the conditions for ensuring electricity supply in the

country. However, there are some questions regarding the relatively large proportion of energy

areas located outside the territorial boundary, in the Swedish exclusive economic zone, regarding

potential risk and impact on the essential functions such as maintaining or ensuring, for example,

control and monitoring, and maintenance and fault repair of infrastructure.

- 135 -

For territorial sea areas, the national marine spatial plan overlaps with regional and municipal

plans. The plan's guidance on energy areas overlaps with municipal plans for the municipalities of

Kalix, Robertsfors, Hudiksvall, Söderhamn, Gävle, Älvkarleby, Tierp and Östhammar.

Cumulative and transboundary effects

Cumulative effects on areas for energy extraction can mean impacts between the areas, both

positive and negative. When establishing several areas nearby, there may be synergies in terms

of infrastructure and maintenance. Negative cumulative impacts can occur based on limitations

and scope of nearby wind farms, limitations in connection capacity, increased levels of conflicts of

interest and possible impact on wind conditions between the farms. This may be relevant both

nationally and in relation to the establishment of wind farms in neighbouring countries.

The plan’s guidance on energy extraction may also have an impact and have an impact on

neighbouring countries, similar to those identified at national level, mainly in Finland. This applies

cumulatively as individual impacts, such as impacts on shipping, especially with regard to winter

navigation, as well as nature values such as migratory birds and migratory routes between

countries. See the respective assessment for more information.

Recreation

The Gulf of Bothnia has a varied coastal landscape with high outdoor and nature values and

great potential for the development of the tourism industry in both summer and winter. The

Bothnian Bay archipelago with tour boat traffic and ice roads, the Haparanda Archipelago

National Park and the High Coast World Heritage Site are significant attractions. Hornslandet and

Gräsö archipelago are also popular areas for recreation.

In the Gulf of Bothnia's marine spatial plan area, there are two energy areas that are considered

to entail a risk of large negative effects on recreation: B108 and B142. These areas are

completely within the territorial boundary and are therefore relatively close to the coast. In

additional energy areas, the risk of negative effects on recreationis considered to be medium:

B111 and B156. Two energy areas are considered to give rise to a risk of a small negative effect:

B113 and B164. Two energy areas are considered to entail a risk of marginal effects on

recreation: B135 and B152. Four areas are not considered to have any effect on recreation

values: B149, B159, B160 and B161. In area B146, there are permits, and the area is included in

the zero alternative, therefore it is not subject to an impact assessment. Figure 40 below shows

the estimated negative impact of the respective energy area.

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Figure 40. Potential negative effect on recreation of proposed energy extraction areas in the Gulf of Bothnia. Dark color shows great effect and light color shows little effect.

- 137 -

Area-specific assessments

Gulf of Bothnia

In the Gulf of Bothnia, B111 is considered to have a potential negative effect on national interest

claims for recreation and national interest for mobile recreation. Norrbotten's coast and

archipelago together with Haparanda Archipelago National Park north of the energy area have

great values for recreation and outdoor activities in the area include nature and cultural

experiences, swimming, canoeing, paragliding, recreational fishing and dog sledding. Values for

the experiences include low noise levels and attractive landscapes and further out in the coastline

there are values of stillness, silence and untouchedness. The B111 is located about 9.5

kilometres from the Haparanda Archipelago National Park and Malören, which are particularly

designated as important areas for recreation in the outer archipelago. The distribution of B111

means that parts of the area of national interest and the values of untouchedness, stillness and

landscape can be negatively affected. Cumulative impact on the experience values from wind

power installations should be taken into account.

The national interest claims for recreation Holmöarna islandsand Lövånger Coast include

activities such as boating, recreational fishing, bird watching, canoeing, skiing, ice skating and

hiking. Both areas have experience values such as stillness, silence, low noise and attractive

landscapes that may be affected by the establishment of wind power. B108 is located about 10.5

kilometers south and 9.5 kilometers north of the Lövånger coast and Holmöarna islands,

respectively. The energy area is considered to have a potential negative effect on national

interest claims for outdoor activities, as the proposed energy area is near the coast. For this area

together with B135 cumulative impacts need to be considered. In addition to the removal of B107

and B139 as energy areas in marine spatial plans proposal, B108 has been adjusted in southern

and northern parts of its extent.

Southern Bothnian Sea

In the Southern Bothnian Sea, B142 is expected to have a negative effect on national interest

claims for recreation Hudiksvall coast with Hornslandet located about 5.5 kilometers from B142.

In the area of national interest there are opportunities for various activities on land, including

snowshoeing, bird watching and cave visits, where the area of national interest also includes the

archipelago. Values that can be affected by the establishment of wind power are untouchedness,

stillness, silence, low noise and attractive landscape. The value description shows that the

Hudiksvall coast with Hornslandet is considered one of the most beautiful coastal sections in

Gävleborg County and at the same time one of the most valuable areas for outdoor activities and

recreation. The report Proposals for suitable energy extraction areas for marine spatial plans

(Energy Agency, 2023a) also notes that the area is relatively untouched and unexploited and has

a varied range of outdoor activities in a culturally, geologically and biologically interesting

environment. Exploitation and various types of installations (e.g. industrial installations) and

noise-generating activities (e.g. wind turbines) risk damaging these values. The area of national

interest is part of a preparatory phase for the establishment of a new national park.

Further south west of B156 there are national interest claims for recreation Nedre Dalälven and

Billudden with activities such as hiking, recreational fishing and running. The value description

states that the landscape is important and in the northern sub-area the view of the sea is

important. When exploiting or otherwise interfering with the environment, tourism and recreation,

in particular the interests of mobile recreation, shall be taken into account. The southern part of

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the B156 overlaps with the landscape protection area Öregrund and Östhammar. South of the

energy area there are national interest claims Öregrund-Gräsö archipelago with activities such as

ice skating, recreational fishing and boating. According to previous assessments, developments

within or in the immediate area in the form of infrastructure facilities and facilities could lead

primarily to the archipelago being exposed to sound or light pollution, changed landscapes or

other effects that could have negatively affected the perception of the national interest claim and

thereby damage its values. Öregrund-Gräsö archipelago is covered by the values of

untouchedness, stillness, silence, low noise and attractive landscape image.

Accessibility

Despite no direct overlap with energy areas and national interests for recreation in the Gulf of

Bothnia, the activities and experiences described as parts of the values can be affected,

especially the more sea-based, such as boating, recreational fishing and canoeing. In summary, it

is the more coastal energy areas that can affect accessibility and perceived accessibility,

especially B108 and B142.

Recreational shipping in the Gulf of Bothnia occurs mainly along the coastline, with most activity

in the North Bothnian Sea and the North Kvarken and the Southern Bothnian Sea. Based on

historical data on recreational boating activity, it is energy areas B152 and B156 that can affect

recreational shipping in the Gulf of Bothnia (Emodnet, 2022). B152 has tendencies towards north-

westerly – south-easterly routes that may affect accessibility and perceived accessibility in the

maritime area. The activity of recreational shipping can be viewed in a general way using

information from automatic identification systems (AIS data). Not all recreational craft use AIS,

which means that the actual prevalence of recreational craft is more extensive. See Figure 41

and Fel! Hittar inte referenskälla. for recreational boating in the Gulf of Bothnia.

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Figure 41. Prevalence of recreational boating activity in proposed energy areas in the Gulf of Bothnia based on an average of hours per month in the years 2017 – 2022 (Emodnet, 2022).

- 140 -

Table 20. Prevalence of recreational boating activity in proposed energy areas in the Gulf of Bothnia based on an average of hours per month in the years 2017 – 2022. The data is based on activity from at least one leisure boat in the energy field (Emodnet, 2022).

Energy area Recreational boat activity average hours/month 2017 - 2022

B108 0,2

B111 0,1

B113 0,1

B135 0,2

B142 0,6

B149 0,5

B152 2,2

B156 1,1

B159 0,9

B160 0,4

B161 0,3

B164 1,7

Other impacts on recreation

In the Gulf of Bothnia is the national park Haparanda archipelago with great values for recreation.

The entire Norrbotten archipelago offers recreation unique experiences. Sandskär's nature and

culture offer an attractive character, as well as good harbour and bathing places. Experiences

within the national park may be affected by energy area B111, not least visually in view of its

proximity of 10 kilometers. In the Southern Bothnian Sea there is a national interest for high-

exploited coastline (Chapter 4, Section 4 of the Environmental Code) with direct overlap with the

south-eastern part of energy area B156. The national interest Arkösund to Forsmark includes

natural and cultural heritage values along the coastline and includes restrictions on industrial

plants that are subject to the government's permit assessment under Chapter 17 of the

Environmental Code. Within the area, the interests of recreation, primarily mobile recreation, must

be taken into account when assessing the admissibility of development companies or other

interventions in the environment.

Cumulative and transboundary effects

The cumulative effects of energy areas on recreation in the Gulf of Bothnia vary and are generally

considered to be small. The effects are mainly visual and concentrate on certain areas. In the

Bothnian Bay, the Norrbotten archipelago is expected to be affected cumulatively by B111 and

B113, where the effects are expected to be greater at the construction of both areas. In North

Kvarken, both B108 and B135 are expected to have cumulative effects on both the national

interest claims Lövångerkusten and Holmöarna, where B108 has a greater impact based on its

proximity to recreation areas. The Hudiksvall coastline with Hornslandet risks being affected

cumulatively by the establishment of B142 and B164. For Nedre Dalälven and Billudden, together

with the mobile recreation within Nedre Dalälven, it can be affected cumulatively by B152

together with B146, which is included in the zero alternative. B156 is expected to have cumulative

- 141 -

effects primarily on the risk interest claim for recreation Öregrunds-Gräsö archipelago and Nedre

Dalälven and Billudden.

For cumulative effects on specific national interests for recreationin the Gulf of Bothnia, the areas

of Norrbotten coast and archipelago, Lövånger coast, Holmöarna islands and Hornslandet that

could possibly have been affected by the establishment of energy areas are highlighted. To some

extent, the national interest claims Nedre Dalälven and Billudden and Öregrund-Gräsö

archipelago can also be affected by the establishment of wind power in B152 and B156.

Although all Finnish projects in Finland’s exclusive economic zone have been rejected pending

new legislation (Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment, 2024), Finnish energy areas could

potentially have some impact on recreation in Sweden, following their marine spatial plan 2030

(Marine spatial plan of Finland, 2021). The energy area outside Ijo-Simo in the northern Bothnian

Bay can have visual effects on the Haparanda Archipelago National Park, as well as national

interests in the Norrbotten Archipelago. Kvarken's northern offshore wind power area in North

Kvarken is located 22.5 kilometers from the national interest claim Holmöarna Islands, which can

have indirect effects on its values and experiences.

Energy areas in the Gulf of Bothnia are expected to have a primarily visual impact on recreation

in Finland, not least the Bothnian Bay National Park and the Sea Lapland tourism and recreation

area, which is about 24 kilometres from the B111. The B108 is located about 22 kilometers from

the tourism and recreation area of the Kvarken Archipelago on the Finnish side, which can give

some visual effects. Crossings for pleasure boats to and from Finland are generally assessed to

be small throughout the marine spatial planning area, but with the highest concentration in North

Kvarken to and from Finland. The energy areas on both sides are not expected to have any major

consequences for recreational shipping to and from the countries.

Tourism

According to the coastal municipalities in the Gulf of Bothnia comprehensive plans, tourism is an

industry that the municipalities invest in. The coast, the archipelago, the untouched nature and

the open sea are seen as assets for the continued development of the tourism industry. Tourism

is also seen as a potential way to attract more people to settle in the area (Region Västerbotten,

u.y.). The conditions for the tourism industry are closely linked to qualities in the landscape,

conditions for recreation and cultural environments with the indirect consequence that where

there is a high risk of impact on these factors, there is also a risk of impact on the tourism

industry. However, according to research, there are uncertainties about what the impact on the

tourism industry might look like. One of the reasons is that people perceive wind power in

different ways (LTU, 2023). Studies suggest that the majority do not allow elements of wind farms

to influence the choice of destination. Some are attracted by wind turbines while others are

discouraged, see Section 2.4.2 Recreation. Most of those who choose to refrain a destination

because of visible wind turbines instead choose to visit a nearby destination. Furthermore, there

is disagreement in research as to whether or not wind turbines have a negative impact on

property prices (Bolin et al., 2021). There are studies that have been able to show reductions in

prices of up to 15 percent. There are also studies that have not been able to find a statistically

significant relationship between wind power establishment and property prices. A Danish study

showed an impact linked to onshore wind power but not from offshore wind power (Jensen et al.,

2018).

- 142 -

Southern Bothnian Sea

The tourism industry is a growing industry according to the comprehensive plans for the area's

coastal municipalities. In the Gulf of Bothnia there are 13 energy areas, eight of which are located

in the Southern Bothnian Sea. About half of them are relatively coastal, while the other areas,

which are larger in area, are further out to sea. In one area (B146) there is a licensed wind farm.

The area is located about 14 kilometer from the coast, to the island of Storjungfrun it is about 3

kilometer. Areas B142, B152, B156 are located between 8 and 25 kilometer from the coast. The

impact on the tourism industry could consist of a redistributive effect where visitors opt out of

locations with visible wind turbines such as in the area around the southern parts of the Southern

Bothnian Sea and instead choose to locate their stay in another part of the Gulf of Bothnia or the

Baltic Sea.

Northern Bothnian Sea and North Kvarken

In the area around the High Coast, the tourism industry is important for the municipalities

concerned (Översiktsplan Kramfors kommun, 2013; Översiktsplan Örnsköldsvik Municipality,

2012). The area is covered by Chapter 4, Section 2 of the Environmental Code, which means that

the interests of tourism and recreation must be taken into account in particular when assessing

the admissibility of development companies or other interventions in the environment. See

section 3.4.2 Recreation, for assessment outdoor activities. An energy area, B161 is located in

the North Bothnian Sea. The area is located at a great distance from the coast and is not

considered to have any impact on the landscape, recreation, cultural environment or shipping and

should therefore not have any impact on the tourism industry.

Gulf of Bothnia

The tourism industry is an industry that the regions in the area see as important to strengthen

(Swedish Lapland Visitors Board, 2024; Region Västerbotten Tourism, 2023). Activities linked to

the tourism industry create jobs, especially for young people, women and people with a foreign

background, groups that people are keen to choose to move to and stay in the region. In the Gulf

of Bothnia there are four energy areas. Two of them are located in the southern parts, one of

which, B108, is coastal and is located about 7 kilometers from the coast. There is a risk that there

may be a redistribution effect at local level if visitors choose to spend their stay elsewhere

because of the location of the wind turbines. The other two energy areas are higher up in the

northern part of the Bothnian Bay. B111 is located about 10 kilometers from Sandskär and 35

kilometers from Haparanda. B113 is located about 30 kilometers from the coast. Where there is a

negative impact on the landscape, recreation and cultural environment, there is also a risk of

negative impact on the tourism industry.

The area is home to the Norrbotten archipelago, which is covered by Chapter 4, Section 2 of the

Environmental Code. See section 3.4.2 for recreation assessment.

Defence

No assessment is made at marine spatial plan level for the interests of defence. See chapter

2.4.4 for general effects.

Shipping

Maritime traffic in the plan area is less intensive compared to other plan areas, but it is still

frequent and of great importance. The traffic includes both routes to and from ports within the

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plan area and between Sweden and Finland. Norrland's industries rely heavily on maritime

transport to reach consumers both within Sweden and internationally. This results in extensive

traffic to both Swedish and Finnish ports. Maritime transport plays a crucial role for regional

industry. It strengthens its accessibility and competitiveness and enables it to reach consumers in

Sweden and abroad on whom it depends. Maritime transport in the plan area, especially in the

North Bothnian Sea and the North Kvarken, faces several challenges:

• Navigation conditions - The level area has some limited manoeuvrability due to depth

conditions and narrow passages within the level area. Through North Kvarken, shipping is

conducted for safety reasons in a traffic separation system (TSS) because the passage is

narrow and shallow.

• Winter conditions - In the Bothnian Bay there are special conditions in winter with thick

and extensive sea ice. This affects the conditions for shipping, which needs large areas

and access to alternative shipping routes to ensure accessibility in the event of icing.

• Icebreaking - For the Gulf of Bothnia plan area, there are particular challenges and

uncertainties regarding winter navigation and icebreaking. Climate change is expected to

bring milder winters, but may still mean more complex ice formation with severe ice

conditions for icebreaking, for example through increased occurrence of ice

embankments.

Proposal for a marine spatial plan, energy extraction and shipping

The plan proposal for the Gulf of Bothnia will provide guidance on 13 areas for energy production,

corresponding to an area of approximately 6,600 km2, approximately 17 percent of the marine

spatial plan area. Marine spatial plans do not provide guidance on specific safety distances to

shipping, but these will be required for all areas using energy extraction. Safety distances shall be

adapted to local conditions according to risk assessment (Swedish Maritime Administration,

Swedish Transport Agency, 2023).

In the northern part of the plan area, the Bothnian Bay, two energy areas are guided, B111 and

B113. These areas are potentially likely to affect winter navigation, limiting the flexibility and need

for alternative routes needed by winter navigation and icebreaking. In a study conducted by

Chalmers, the risk of impact on winter navigation has been analyzed. The result shows that the

energy area B111 has a risk of relatively large impact while B113 has a risk of more limited

impact. During ice winters, icebreaking is carried out and often other areas are used than the

established fairways used during summer time, such as B111, B113, B135 (Ringsberg et al.,

2024).

Over North Kvarken, between Umeå and Vaasa in Finland, European route 12 runs via ferry line

and has shipping use in the plan. Umeå municipality's comprehensive plan points out a reserve

for the future fixed connection between Umeå and Vaasa. The Finnish marine spatial plan

identifies this route and Finland intends to investigate a functional connection.

Slightly further south, the energy areas B108 and B135 are located. All energy areas in the

northern plan area are located between ship routes and with maritime traffic to and from ports in

Finland, Haparanda and Luleå, Skellefteå, Umeå.

A larger spatial share of the marine spatial plan's proposed energy areas, approximately 4,660

km2, is distributed over eight energy areas in the Southern Bothnian Sea. There are several

fairways in the area, which means that all energy areas are adjacent to a fairway of varying

extent. A number of areas are located in clusters, which can have a multidimensional impact on

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maritime routes, i.e. wind farms on more sides of the fairway, this applies to areas B159, B160

and B164.

In the Southern Bothnian Sea, guidance is given on energy areas B149, B164 where the current

fairway is located and classified as a national interest. The fairway runs for northbound traffic

from South Kvarken, around eastern Finngrunden and up to Sundsvall harbour. The plan's

guidance remains from the decided plan and means that shipping must instead take the turn at

eastern Finngrunden and follow a northbound route and then turn off towards Sundsvall's port in

the northwest. The effect on shipping will be a longer mileage. The extended itinerary is

estimated to be around 15 kilometers. Traffic intensity in the fairway is estimated to be less

extensive, but may nevertheless affect shipping in the area and activities at local level. The main

maritime traffic is freight vessels, tankers and fishing vessels (EMODnet, 2022). Guidance on

energy areas B164 and B149 and extended distance can affect accessibility and also mean

indirect environmental impact and increased emissions.

Figure 42 below shows the potential effect of each energy sector on shipping in the Gulf of

Bothnia.

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Figure 42. Relative potential negative effect of energy areas on shipping in the Gulf of Bothnia. Dark color shows great effect and light color shows little effect.

- 146 -

Indirect impact

A potential indirect impact may be an increased risk of allision, i.e. collision between ships and

wind turbines. Allision can have environmental effects such as oil spills, etc. Other potential

indirect impacts from guidance in areas of energy concern general accessibility for rescue and

remediation work in maritime accidents at sea. For more information, see section 2.4.4 Defence

and the Swedish Maritime Administration’s and the Swedish Transport Agency’s knowledge base

on offshore wind power (Ahlström 2023, and the Swedish Maritime Administration and the

Swedish Transport Agency 2023).

Further information on spatial analyses of shipping in the area can be found in the Lighthouse

report Maritime interest in sea space in light of an increased expansion of wind power (Hjerpe

Olausson, J. et al.,2024).

Assessment Marine Spatial Plan

The plan's guidance on energy areas is considered to constitute a potential impact on shipping,

primarily with regard to energy areas B149 and B164, which are located in existing national

interest claims for shipping. The plan's guidance with several energy areas in the southern

Bothnian Sea also risks having a potential cumulative effect on shipping. If several nearby energy

areas are realized, this may mean that areas adjoin fairways sideways in several directions, such

as the B159 and B160.

Possible indirect effects and environmental effects are increased accident risk, taking into

account the increased number of fixed installations at sea, the risk of collision during crowding,

and the risk of impact on the availability and aggravation of rescue operations.

The challenge for shipping in the entire plan area is also uncertainties regarding the impact on

winter navigation. This may be particularly relevant for the northern plan areas and energy areas

B111, B113 and B135, which risks limiting shipping and the flexibility of icebreaking activities for

alternative shipping routes and icebreaking.

In the marine spatial planning area there is uncertainty regarding the impact of wind power

expansion on ice formation, which has consequences for both energy expansion and shipping.

The use of shipping in the marine spatial plan is based on national interest claims for shipping

that coincide in large parts with established shipping lanes and shipping routes, except in the

South Bothnian Sea. It is estimated that the potential impact on shipping is medium. Assessment

is made partly on the basis of the impact on national interest claims, energy areas B149 and

B164, and taking into account uncertainties and potential impact of winter navigation especially

areas in the northern planning area (B111, B113 and B135).

Cumulative and transboundary effects

Potential impact on Swedish and international shipping is assumed to be limited on the basis that

the recommendation and permit for the establishment of wind farms take into account the

required safety distances. However, uncertainties remain regarding winter navigation and further

knowledge is needed to facilitate coexistence in the plan area. The same assessment also

applies to shipping to and from neighbouring countries, mainly to and from Finland.

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Commercial fishing

Swedish commercial fishing in the Gulf of Bothnia is sparse in the open sea, but more frequent in

the coastal waters. The economically most important species are vendace, salmon and herring,

where fishing for vendace and salmon takes place outside the marine spatial plan area closer to

the coast. At times, pelagic fishing takes place in the Southern Bothnian Sea, mainly around the

offshore banks and in the south-eastern parts of the sea area. There is also bottom trawling.

Fishing is clearly seasonal, as the area is ice-covered for parts of the year. In addition to Swedish

fishing for Baltic herring, there is also extensive Finnish Baltic herring fishing in the area (Swedish

Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2025).

Impact on commercial fisheries

In the southern Bothnian Sea there are three areas of national interest for commercial fishing in

the marine spatial plan area, see Figure 41. At Finngrunden there is a spawning and nursery area

for fish. The area is partly covered by a Natura 2000 site and the entire area B157 is listed as use

nature in the marine spatial plan. The other two areas of national interest are catch areas and are

located west and east of Finngrunden. The marine spatial plan indicates the use of commercial

fishing for these areas. With this national interest, the marine spatial plan meets the demand for

commercial fishing.

The plan’s guidance on other uses, such as energy, affects the conduct of commercial fisheries

outside identified risk interest claims. This is particularly true in the Southern Bothnian Sea, where

several energy areas in the plan proposal are located. The actual impact depends on

opportunities for coexistence and adaptations such as the design of wind farms or of commercial

fishing, spatially or regarding fishing methods. The total landing value for Swedish trawl fisheries

for pelagic species in Sweden’s territorial waters and exclusive economic zone was annually on

average approximately SEK 36 million over the period 2013-2023 (Waldo S. & Blomquist J.,

2024b).

In all energy areas of the Southern Bothnian Sea, pelagic fishing has taken place in the period

2013-2023, but to a very different extent. Based on the assumption that each trawl line passing

through the proposed energy areas is affected by an establishment, the impacted landing value

represents approximately 12 percent of the landing value from Sweden's territorial sea and

exclusive economic zone in the Gulf of Bothnia. If Swedish fishing in the Finnish zone is included,

the proportion decreases. This proportion should also be seen in the light of the fact that vessels

fish pelagically both in the Gulf of Bothnia and in the Baltic Sea. Fishing in the Baltic Sea is not

affected by the proposed marine spatial plan, as no new areas for energy extraction are proposed

in the Baltic Sea. The total average annual landing value of catches from pelagic pelagic pelagic

trawls in the Baltic Sea was about five times higher than in the Gulf of Bothnia during the period.

The actual impact will depend on opportunities to continue fishing in the area and to move

operations to other locations (Waldo S. & Blomquist J. 2024a).

The energy areas that could have the greatest impact on fisheries based on landing values in

2013-2023 are energy area B164, and area B149, where fishing with trawls for pelagic species is

conducted. It is difficult to fish with pelagic pelagic trawls in a wind farm. The establishment of

wind power is likely to exclude trawl fisheries for pelagic species in these energy areas (Waldo S.

& Blomquist J. 2024a).

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Table 21. Landing value from Swedish fisheries affected by energy areas in millions of SEK (mkr) and percentage (%) of total landing value, for the Gulf of Bothnia. Annual averages 2013-2023.

Type of fishing

Landing value affected by energy areas (SEK million)

Landing value from Swedish territorial waters and exclusive economic zone (SEK million)

Share of landing value from Swedish territorial waters and exclusive economic zone affected by energy areas

Landing value including part of fishing in other countries' territorial sea and exclusive economic zone total (SEK million)

Share of landing value incl. share of fishing in other countries' territorial sea and economic zone affected by energy areas

Trawl fishing

pelagic species (floating trawl and

bottom trawl) in the Gulf of

Bothnia

4,5 36 12%

45

10%

Source: Waldo, S. & Blomquist, J., 2024b How is Swedish fishing affected by offshore wind power? Supplementary material (AgriFood Report, no. 2024:2). AgriFood Economics Centre.

The impact assessment is based on the landing value generated by the trawl lines that partially or

fully pass through the energy area. The areas are not classified as national interests, but fishing

with both pelagic trawls and bottom trawls for pelagic species is carried out in the areas.

The plan proposal includes an expansion of areas in the Gulf of Bothnia with particular

consideration to high nature values with regard to migratory birds, soft bottom and reef

environment. Areas with special nature considerations can in the long term, depending on the

nature value the consideration refers to, benefit commercial fishing based on potentially

enhanced ecosystem services.

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Figure 43. The map shows proposed energy areas, use of commercial fishing and national interest claims for commercial fishing in the Gulf of Bothnia. The figure also shows the impact as a percentage of the total annual landing value (pelagic floating or bottom trawl) per energy area.

- 150 -

Indirect environmental impact of land and water use

The guidance provided by the marine spatial plan and the potential impact on commercial

fisheries may also have indirect environmental effects. Changes in the spatial and intensity of

commercial fishing may involve a shift in fishing activity to other areas, possibly with longer

driving distances and increased air emissions, such as greenhouse gases. It may affect the

conditions for commercial fishing if operating costs increase due to longer distance and driving

time and/or income decreases due to reduced catch. Actual outcomes and indirect environmental

impact regarding the impact on mileage and air emissions are considered uncertain and also due

to the development and conversion of the fleet to more energy efficient and fossil-free fuels.

The area is mainly fishing with pelagic trawls, but also some fishing with bottom trawls.

Potentially, this may mean that the impact on benthic habitats is expected to decrease in the

energy areas where bottom trawling no longer takes place. However, the gross effect is mainly

local and the overall net effect of reduced impact on benthic habitats depends on whether and to

which other areas a possible relocation of bottom trawling takes place.

National, regional, municipal interests

The plan's guidance on the use of commercial fishing confirms national interest claims for

commercial fishing. However, guidance on the use of energy may to some extent affect the

conduct of commercial fishing in the plan area. The impact on commercial fishing can also affect

activities and value chains dependent on marine resources, as well as other activities and

facilities for landing and processing fishery resources. This includes, for example, port activities of

local and regional interest in the plan area, as well as essential functions related to food security

and primary production (see section 2.4.6. Commercial fishing).

For the marine spatial planning area, it is primarily Gävle municipality and the landing port

Norrsundet whose landings come from fishing that has been carried out in any of the proposed

energy areas that are affected. This may indirectly affect other operations that depend on certain

landing volumes. In Norrsundet, 17.9 percent of the landed value comes from fishing that has

been conducted in energy areas (Waldo S. & Blomquist J., 2024a) The actual impact on landings

depends on the ability of the fishery to conduct fishing in places other than the energy areas.

Cumulative and transboundary effects

In addition to Swedish fishing, extensive Finnish fishing is taking place throughout the Gulf of

Bothnia. Fishing takes place mainly in the southern Bothnian Sea and is believed to be affected

by guidance on energy extraction in the area. The extent of the impact is difficult to assess, but is

assumed to be mainly affected by energy areas located in the exclusive economic zone, such as

area B156 which is located in both the economic and territorial sea and area B161 in the

exclusive economic zone. The total potential impact on commercial fishing is therefore

significantly higher than if one only looks at Swedish commercial fishing in the plan area.

Limited Swedish commercial fishing is carried out in two energy areas in the Finnish marine

spatial plan, Archipelago Sea and the Southern Bothnian Sea (Finnish Marine spatial plan, 2021).

The impact on commercial fishing of all energy areas in the marine spatial plan for the Gulf of

Bothnia is assessed to have some impact on the conduct of commercial fishing in the plan area,

mainly in the case of Swedish pelagic fishing for herring,

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However, not all areas of energy in the marine spatial plan are assumed to be realised, and the

actual impact and aggravation on the conduct of commercial fishing depend on which areas of

energy are actually realised, as well as on opportunities for coexistence. Examples of different

types of adaptation are: the design of the wind farm, adaptations in fisheries, e.g. fishing

methods, as well as possibilities for relocation of fisheries to other areas.

The total potential impact on landing values and related activities for all fisheries may be

significantly higher due to the existence of extensive Finnish fisheries.

Potential impact on commercial fishing, is also considered to entail indirect effects in terms of

fishing value chains, processing industry, affected landing ports and municipal interests. See

chapter 2.4.6. about national and municipal interests.

In terms of effects on the profitability of fishing enterprises, these depend on the extent to which

fishing can move, how landings are affected and whether the costs of fishing operations change.

The impact on individual companies depends on how their fishing patterns may need to be

changed.

Reindeer husbandry

In the Gulf of Bothnia, it is relevant to highlight potential consequences for reindeer husbandry

because there are designated national interest claims under Chapter 3, Section 5, and large-

scale establishment of offshore wind power can affect reindeer husbandry. The impact can be

visual, both from the turbines and the obstacle lighting as well as noise from construction and

maintenance. Increased expansion of infrastructure linked to energy transfer on land such as

cables, wires, transformers, together with other exploitation can contribute to deteriorating

conditions for reindeer husbandry. Reindeer tend to avoid areas with wind power exploitation on

land (Naturvårdsverket 2018, Skarin A. 2018), and the same may apply if the exploitation in the

sea affects areas where reindeer graze on the coast and in the archipelago. Coastal pastures and

archipelago islands are particularly important winter pastures as the milder coastal climate offers

better conditions than inland lands that may be covered by thick snow cover and ice that makes it

difficult for reindeer to graze the ground lichen (Sametinget, 2024, personal communication).

The energy areas B111 and B113 in the Bothnian Bay are within 10 kilometers, respectively 50

kilometers distance to the coast and national interest for reindeer husbandry. Area B111 can

have visual effects, and risks disturbing reindeer. Effects that could arise are displacement from

important pastures and, in the long term, a change in the Sami cultural landscape and cultural

heritage. B113 could be perceived, but the visual impact is estimated to be relatively small. Of the

remaining energy areas in the North and South of the Gulf of Bothnia, the B107, B139 and B108

are located between 12 kilometres and 20 kilometres from the coast, but they have no direct

visual impact as the landscape and terrain between the coast and areas of national interest are

hilly. The southernmost energy areas of the Gulf of Bothnia are so far away from reindeer herding

areas that they should not be affected. Infrastructure building in connection with these energy

areas will probably also end up south of Sundsvall, and is therefore not expected to have any

impact.

The consequences of establishing offshore wind farms in areas that affect reindeer husbandry

mean that it may be more difficult to conduct reindeer husbandry. Reindeer herding is linked to

several different values in society, both intangible such as cultural heritage, identity, landscape

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and also material such as employment and food production. There are several factors that affect

reindeer husbandry, where climate change is a factor that leads to more uncertain conditions in

the longer term. Reindeer herding has a strong connection to the natural landscape and risks

being affected to a large extent by climate-related effects. Consequences of exploitation resulting

from energy extraction should be seen in a holistic perspective, where cumulative consequences

of exploitation need to be investigated.

Impact during construction, operation and decommissioning

Table 22. Impact on reindeer husbandry in different phases, as well as possible consideration measures.

Phase Type of impact Possible consideration measure

Facility Increased traffic

Noise

Time adjustment after reindeer husbandry

Operation Visual impact of wind turbines

Visual impact obstacle lighting

Impact on ice conditions

Location of wind turbines

Wind farm design

Settlement Increased traffic

Noise

Time adjustment after reindeer husbandry

- 153 -

Overall assessment Gulf of Bothnia

Nature and ecological aspects

The biodiversity and species composition of the Gulf of Bothnia is unique in view of the specific

conditions prevailing in terms of, for example, salinity and contact with a large number of

freshwater bodies. Fish stocks are generally relatively weak, and migratory salmon need to be

taken into account. In the Bothnian Bay there is a unique population of ringed seals where the

population is stable, but the species has been exposed to environmental toxins and the

reproduction rate is weakened. Ringed seals depend on a stable ice sheet for breeding and

rearing young. There are several important areas for both migratory and wintering birds. In the

proposed marine spatial plan, the area for areas with particular consideration to high nature

values has been increased with a focus on birds, ringed seals, and bottom habitats at Ulvödjupet.

Together with other consideration areas and areas with the use nature in the adopted marine

spatial plan, these are considered to signal the need for special protection and consideration

when planning and regulating human activities. The new proposed areas can be seen as a

complement to area protection, contributing to green infrastructure and ecosystem services and

sustainable use in the Gulf of Bothnia.

The marine spatial plan provides guidance for extensive energy expansion in the Gulf of Bothnia,

and this may entail the risk of major negative effects for birds, especially in the southern part.

Western and Eastern Finngrunden are important for both wintering and migratory bird

populations. Wind power expansion in connection with Finngrunden risks displacing birds living in

the area. There is also a risk of collision with migratory birds as the proposed areas are adjacent

to a migratory route towards Finland. Large-scale energy expansion is also negative for the

ringed seal, as there is a risk that wind farms in the Bothnian Bay will affect the sea ice on which

it depends for its reproduction. For benthic habitats, larger surface claims generally mean greater

negative impact, but overall, the assessment is that the plan proposal has a small negative effect

on the benthic habitat and that local adaptation can be made when planning. Similarly, it is

considered that the risk of negative impact on fish spawning can be minimised by adapting the

construction time to the spawning period for herring and vendace for wind power projects in

energy areas close to the coast.

Recreation, cultural environment and landscape

Norrbotten is home to the Haparanda Archipelago, an area with high values for recreation and the

cultural environment, including the Haparanda Archipelago National Park. At the same level as

Umeå, there is Lövångerkusten and the Holmöarna islands, which are national interests for

recreation. Further south is the High Coast World Heritage Site, which possesses unique qualities

that are essential for the national recreation, the regional tourism industry, where the area is also

an important cultural environment. The southern Bothnian Sea is home to Hornslandet, which is

in the process of becoming a new national park thanks to its high natural and cultural heritage

values.

In the proposed plan for the Gulf of Bothnia, a number of proposed energy areas are located

within 25 kilometers of the coast: one at Haparanda archipelago, one at Holmöarna islands and

several in the southern Bothnian Sea. Energy areas that are well within sight of the coast have a

risk of having a major impact on cultural environments and recreation values. Landscape impact

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is also considered to be greatest in the southern Bothnian Sea. This risk is particularly high if

several energy areas are established. There is a small risk of impact on recreational boat traffic in

the areas of North Kvarken and along the Gävle and northern Uppland coasts, as some energy

areas are located near the coast and near routes for recreational boats.

Energy extraction, shipping and commercial fishing

The marine spatial plan for the Gulf of Bothnia will provide guidance on 13 areas for energy

production, which corresponds to approximately 17 percent of the marine spatial plan area.

Energy areas in the territorial sea are located in the municipalities of Kalix, Robertsfors,

Hudiksvall, Söderhamn, Gävle, Älvkarleby, Tierp and Östhammar. In general, the energy areas in

the Gulf of Bothnia have good conditions for energy extraction, however, relatively lower than

other marine areas in terms of wind conditions, but a relatively large area in shallow areas and in

the southern Bothnian Sea relatively close to the coast. In some areas suitable for energy, other

uses have been given priority, which may negatively affect the industry, affected companies in

wind power planning in the planning area.

In the Gulf of Bothnia, there is uncertainty regarding the impact of wind power expansion on ice

formation, which can have consequences for both energy expansion and shipping. The use of

shipping in the marine spatial plan is based on national interest claims for shipping that largely

coincide with established shipping lanes and shipping routes. In two energy areas in the Southern

Bothnian Sea, however, guidance on the use of energy is given priority over the national interest

claim for shipping, which means a changed route for the shipping concerned. The overall

assessment of the potential impact on shipping in the plan area is difficult to make based on

uncertainties regarding the impact on winter navigation. In addition to this uncertainty, potential

impacts are considered to be medium, both for Swedish and international shipping, based on

uncertain cumulative impacts on shipping and uncertain conditions for winter navigation. The plan

indicates that safety distances must be decided when designing and licensing the wind farms.

It is not expected that there will be any negative impact on Swedish commercial fishing in the

Bothnian Bay or the North Bothnian Sea. In the Southern Bothnian Sea, however, the impact on

commercial fishing is estimated to be medium for pelagic trawl fisheries and Finnish fisheries

conducted in the area. Potential impact on commercial fishing is also considered to have indirect

effects on fishing and its value chains, the processing industry, affected landing ports and

municipal interests.

Aggregated assessment of energy areas

In the impact assessment, negative and positive impacts have been assessed on a scale from 0

to 4. The purpose is to show the risk of impact on the assessment aspect, such as bird or cultural

environment. It is a complex task to make an overall assessment for an energy area in terms of

the cumulative impact an energy area has on different assessment aspects and interests. This is

due to several factors, including the degree of detail and quality of the knowledge base differing

between different assessments, as well as the challenge of comparing widely different types of

effects and consequences. At the same time, it is essential that the impact assessment provides

an overall picture. Table 23 below shows all assessments by energy area in the marine spatial

plan area of the Gulf of Bothnia. The table aims to give an overview and an indication that some

energy areas have a greater risk of negative effects than others.

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Table 23. The table shows, in colour scale, assessments for all assessment aspects that have potential adverse effects. The table also shows a column where the values have been summarised, both in total and by nature and ecological aspects, maritime transport and commercial fisheries.

Ecology Sectors Recreation, Cultural

environment and Landscape

Area Benthic habitats

Fish and fish spawning Bats

Migratory bird

Bird, over- wintering

Marine mammals Shipping

Professio nal fishing

Recrea tion

Cultural environ ment Landscape

B108

B111

B113

B135

B142

B146 (permit)

B149

B152

B156

B159

B160

B161

B164

Assessment scenarios show potential distribution of cumulative effects

As it is unclear which energy areas are ultimately being built, it is difficult to draw conclusions on

the actual distribution of impacts. Two different assessment scenarios have been developed

showing potential deployment taking into account different interests (see section 1.3.3.

Assessment scenarios). The ‘Nature and Culture’ scenario shows an expansion that has taken

into account the values of nature and cultural environments. The expected energy production

would be approximately 107 TWh, which is a large amount of potential energy production. At the

same time, the most negative effects on, for example, the ringed seal in the north, migratory bird

routes in the Southern Bothnian Sea and the impact on coastal cultural environments in the

Haparanda Archipelago, the North Kvarken and the Gulf of Gävle are avoided. In the central parts

of the Bothnian Sea is remains an extensive cluster of energy areas that are located far from the

coast and have the potential to contrubute to the transition to more sustainable energy

production.

The ‘Maritime and Commercial Fishing’ scenario shows an expansion that would generate about

102 TWh, i.e. a large amount of energy, while avoiding areas that are particularly important for

commercial fishing. Expansion under the scenario "Shipping and Commercial fishing" would also

mean that negative consequences for shipping are avoided as energy areas that could lead to

increased mileage disappear. However, the risk of potential and uncertain impact on winter

navigation remains with expansion in the northern parts.

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Figure 44. Demonstrates what an offshore wind development could look like in the Gulf of Bothnia if greater consideration were taken to avoid negative impacts on nature and culture values based on the impact assessment.

- 157 -

Figure 45. The map shows what an expansion of offshore wind power could look like in the Gulf of Bothnia if greater consideration were taken to avoid negative impacts on values for shipping and commercial fishing based on the impact assessment.

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Cross-border cumulative effects

Cumulative effects in the Gulf of Bothnia can mainly occur in relation to the impact on birds,

ringed seals, fish, landscapes, cultural environments, recreation, water (hydrography),

commercial fishing and shipping.

The planned energy establishment of neighbouring countries can mainly contribute to cumulative

impacts on birds, bats, ringed seals, fish, commercial fisheries, energy and shipping.

Continued co-operation and dialouge with neighbouring countries is necessary to assess

cumulative impacts from a sea basin perspective.

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Figure 46. Map of proposed energy areas in the Gulf of Bothnia and energy expansion plans of neighbouring countries. Source: EMODnet, 2022, Flanders Marine Institute, 2023.

- 160 -

Impact assessment of marine spatial plan for the

Baltic Sea

Impact on population and health

The uses that can have an impact on population and human health are guidance on energy use,

sand extraction and guidance on changing mileage for shipping. The guidance on sand extraction

and shipping lanes has not changed since the previous marine spatial plan, and the assessment

presented in the sustainability assessment of decided marine spatial plans in 2019 is still up to

date (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2019b). The previous sustainability

report assesses the risk of health effects from the guidance on shipping as insignificant taking

into account negligible changes in emissions of airborne pollutants (Swedish Agency for Marine

and Water Management, 2019b). Sand extraction activities at Utklippan, Sandhammar Bank and

Sandflyttan according to the marine spatial plan’s guidance on sand extraction are assessed to

have a marginal negative impact on air quality locally (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water

Management, 2019b), but this is a transitory effect and without a closer estimate of air emissions

it is not possible to assess any risks to human health.

The Baltic Sea is the only marine spatial planning area in Sweden that has offshore wind power in

operation, outside the city of Malmö and off the coast of Öland. The zero alternative also includes

the energy area where the Kriegers Flak project has a permit to construct offshore wind power,

see Figure 47 below. In the draft marine spatial plan for the Baltic Sea, only energy areas where

there are permits for the establishment of offshore wind power remain. The background to the

Government's decision to reject all applications for offshore wind farms in the sea area is the

overall assessment that there are currently no conditions for using energy extraction in addition to

existing permits in the Baltic Proper due to the interests of defence (Ministry of Climate and

Industry 2024; Government 2024d).

The already adopted marine spatial plan for the Baltic Sea from 2022 included the energy area

Södra Midsjöbanken, which in the current proposal is removed. It is not possible to derive any

direct or indirect effects on population and health from this change in the marine spatial plan in

the Baltic Sea.

- 161 -

Figure 47. Map showing distances from energy areas to agglomerations in the Baltic Sea marine spatial plan area. Source: Statistics Sweden, 2020.

- 162 -

Effects on protected animal or plant species and

biodiversity

Birds

Through large parts of the southern and central Baltic Sea, broad migratory bird paths run in a

southwest-northeast direction from south of Skåne, through southern Hanö Bay, past Öland and

Gotland, and further towards the Gulf of Finland and South Kvarken. The route covers several

million individuals annually in both spring and autumn. In addition to this broad route, narrow

passages over the sea, so-called bottlenecks, are particularly important migratory routes for

terrestrial birds and bats that largely avoid flying over the open sea. Known bottlenecks in the

Baltic Sea are Öresund, Kalmarsund-Öland-Gotland and Södra Kvarken. The establishment of

offshore wind power in the proposed energy areas located within the broad strip and the known

bottlenecks is therefore intended to entail a risk of high or medium impact on birds.

The potential positive environmental effects of moving the shipping currently operating through

Hoburg Shoal and Midsjöbankarna to a deep water route south and east of the banks were

reported in the environmental impact assessment of the adopted marine spatial plans (Swedish

Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2019a). Based on conclusions from previous studies

and results from Symphony, it was concluded that the transfer of shipping from the banks was the

most favorable option for the protection of endangered species of birds and marine mammals and

for reducing the cumulative environmental impact of shipping. As the guidance on the

investigation area for shipping remains unchanged, the conclusions are considered to apply to

the present proposal for a marine spatial plan for the Baltic Sea.

The long-tailed duck is one of the species with wintering areas of global importance in the Baltic

Sea. The species is classified as highly endangered in its wintering areas. The Natura 2000 site

Hoburg Shoal and Midsjöbankarna are one of the most important wintering areas for algae in the

world (Larsson, 2018) with about 25 percent of the entire northern European and western

Siberian population wintering at Hoburg’s Shoal (Skov et al., 2011). Long-tailed ducks migrates

from its breeding areas to the embankments in the autumn and remains there until spring. There

are also other wintering seabirds in the area, including black guillemot, common scoter, velvet

scoter, common guillemot and razorbill.

Cumulative and transboundary effects

Since no wind power is proposed in the Swedish part of the marine spatial plan area, the

neighbouring countries' planning for wind power constitutes the cumulative risk of impact. South

of Skåne, there are established wind power on both the Danish and German sides as well as

plans for further establishment. The cumulative effect on birds is expected to be smaller when no

potential negative impact can occur on the Swedish side according to the plan proposal. There is

still a risk of cumulative impact due to the fact that many other wind farms are currently being

established and many energy areas are identified that concern the same migratory route,

including Estonia, Denmark and Germany, but the birds are also affected much further south as

many that pass are long-distance species.

- 163 -

A large energy area west of Saaremaa, Estonia, may to some extent affect the route that crosses

the Baltic Sea towards Gotland. There are many designated energy areas in the southern Baltic

Sea (Arkona Basin) that can pose a high risk of negative impact if all of them are built.

Bats

In the Baltic Sea, the risk of impact on bats is greatest south of Skåne and between Öland and

Gotland. As no energy areas are included in the Baltic Sea marine spatial plan, bats are not

expected to be negatively affected by offshore wind power from the Swedish side.

Marine mammals

Grey seals, harbour seals and Belt Sea and Baltic Sea harbour porpoises are found in the Baltic

Sea.

Common seal

In Kalmarsund there is also a small isolated population with harbour seals that are red-listed in

the vulnerable category. According to published studies (Stanley et al., 1996; Goodman, 1998)

the Kalmar Strait stock is the genetically most deviant among European harbour seals. The stock

has probably been isolated from other harbour seal populations for at least 6 000 years.

Grey seal

Grey seals are common in the Baltic Sea. It can be disturbed and intimidated by underwater

noise but is not as noise sensitive as the harbour porpoise.

Harbour porpoise

According to the results of the SAMBAH project, harbour porpoises from the Baltic Sea

population accumulate during the summer in the area on and between the banks of the central

Baltic Sea (Hoburg’s Shoal, North Midsjöbank and South Midsjöbank). Summer is the time when

the harbour porpoise is most susceptible to disturbance because it calves in June-July and mates

in August. The porpoise suckles its calf for up to ten months and for at least the first six months

from birth the calf is assumed to be so dependent on the female that any separation may be

critical. For these reasons, the area is a very important area for the Baltic Sea's critically

endangered harbour porpoise population.

Cumulative and transboundary effects

Negative cumulative effects on harbour porpoises may occur at the South Midsjöbank, where

Poland has a larger number of energy areas in its marine spatial plan. The areas of the Slupsk

embankment are not as significant during the summer reproduction period of the harbour

porpoise.

Risk of negative cumulative effects on harbour porpoises from wind power in Danish and German

waters. Most importantly, establishment does not take place at the same time because the

construction phase has the greatest negative impact.

- 164 -

Benthic habitats

Some deeper parts of the Baltic Sea have for a long period been negatively affected by oxygen

deficiency and are therefore considered to lack nature values. Natural bottom substrates in the

Baltic Sea consist largely of soft bottoms with clay as well as sand, gravel and stone.

Fish and spawning grounds

In the current proposal for an amended marine spatial plan for the Baltic Sea, guidance on sand

extraction is considered to entail a risk of impact on fish. The guidance is the same as in the

adopted marine spatial plan, which is why the conclusions in the respective environmental impact

assessment are considered to apply (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management,

2019a).

When sand is extracted at Utklippan, it is considered that increased turbidity can occur locally.

The effect is considered to be short-lived as the sediment consists mainly of coarse-grained sand

and gravel (Swedish Geological Survey, 2017). Even if the area is outside the cod spawning

area, cod larvae can drift into the area (Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department

of Aquatic Resources, 2018). The larvae are sensitive to suspended sediment at higher

concentrations, which is why extraction should preferably be paused during those times of the

year when there are cod larvae in the water. The area is also part of an important growing area

for cod, and the bottom is probably used by flatfish. Based on the uncertainty about the design of

the activity and its specific effects on fish and fish habitats, and taking into account the

precautionary principle, it is considered that the effect of proposed sand extraction activities in

Utklippan could lead to moderately negative effects on fish. The effects are considered to be most

local and reversible in the short term based on the geographical scope of the activity in relation to

the marine spatial planning area and alternative spawning grounds for the affected species.

Specific effects on fish and in particular fish spawning should be further investigated in the

licensing process.

However, the proposed sand extraction at Sandhammar embankment, south of Ystad, is not

expected to have any specific effects on fish. According to previous assessments, the area does

not host any particularly valuable habitat types, but it is considered to be a foraging area for

flatfish (Swedish Geological Survey, 2017). The area is characterised by high sediment mobility

and sand extraction is estimated to be compensated by the accumulation of sand from the upper

part of the bank. High substrate dynamics and large temporal variation in the bottom fauna make

it difficult to assess the specific effects of quarrying on biodiversity.

Locally large negative environmental effects are expected to occur in connection with the

proposed sand extraction at Sandflyttan southwest of Falsterbo. Disturbance to sensitive habitats

for affected fish species such as cod and flatfish should be minimised by avoiding periods of

sensitive life stages for the species, as well as by distributing sand extraction so that the risk of

oxygen-poor pits does not arise (Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of

Aquatic Resources, 2018). In view of the high nature values in the local area, sand extraction

activities are considered to have moderate to large negative effects on fish, but specific effects

need to be investigated within the framework of Natura 2000 permit assessment. Increased

turbidity is expected to occur locally during sand extraction, but is not expected to be long-lasting

given the grain size of the sediment, so the effect is considered to be local and small in relation to

the marine spatial plan area as a whole.

- 165 -

Guidance on particular consideration for high nature values in the application of the plan may

contribute to a small positive effect on the fish resource. Adaptations relate, for example, to

reduced by-catch or reduced impact on the seabed during bottom trawling. However, whether

and, if so, how such provisions could be introduced is impossible to predict at the current

juncture, and thus also the potential positive effects on fish.

Impact of proposals for new areas with particular consideration to high nature

values

For the Baltic Sea, the plan proposal includes a number of additional areas for particular

consideration of high nature values (small n areas). The energy area Ö283 south of Skåne is

proposed as an area for particular consideration for high nature values in order to strengthen

particular consideration for migratory birds and meet up with the migratory bird path Rügen –

Skåne, which is marked in the German marine spatial plan.

The areas for general use, shipping and commercial fishing (Ö258 and Ö259) between

Hanöbukten and Midsjöbankarna have mainly been proposed as areas for particular

consideration of high nature values with regard to the Baltic Sea population of harbour porpoises.

Södra Midsjöbanken (Ö248) is an area for particular consideration of high nature values in the

adopted marine spatial plan, but is also proposed as a Natura 2000 area under the Birds

Directive designated for seabirds, long-tailed ducks and black guillemot. Several areas around

Gotland are included in proposals for new Natura 2000 areas under the Birds Directive. West of

Gotland, this applies to parts of areas Ö291 and Ö500 around Stora Karlsö. East of Gotland it

applies to the areas Ö500 and Ö296 along the east coast.

Northwest of Gotska Sandön, an area with use defence (Ö505) and one with general use (Ö506)

has been supplemented as areas for particular consideration for high nature values with a focus

on birds, and east of Muskö, an area with general use (Ö507) is proposed as an area for

particular consideration for high nature values.

Application of particular consideration for high nature values is considered relevant for the new

areas with the designation small n in the Baltic Sea as guidance for uses such as commercial

fishing and shipping. In practice, it can contribute to better conditions for biodiversity conservation

and green infrastructure as a basis for developed ecosystem services. Figure 48 shows the areas

with nature use and particular consideration for high nature values within the marine spatial plan

area of the Baltic Sea.

- 166 -

Figure 48. Areas using nature (N) and decided on the respective proposals for new areas with particular consideration to high nature values (n) in the Baltic Sea (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management 2024c).

- 167 -

Effects on land, soil, water, air, climate, landscape,

settlement and cultural environment

Water and air

In the Baltic Sea marine spatial plan area, it is the marine spatial plan's guidance on energy

extraction, sand extraction and investigation area for shipping that is considered to have effects

on water and air. The guidance in these areas does not differ from the marine spatial plan already

adopted, except that an energy area in the Southern Baltic Sea has been removed.

The proposed marine spatial plan for the Baltic Sea provides guidance on sand extraction

activities in three areas: Utklippan within Ö508, Sandhammar embankment within Ö280 and

Ö281, and the Sandflyttan investigation area within Ö284. Previous extraction operations at

Sandhammar have ceased. According to the Geological Survey of Sweden, all three areas have

geological, economic and environmental conditions for sand extraction (Swedish Geological

Survey, 2017). Sand extraction is expected to lead to increased turbidity and reduced water

quality locally. However, the effect is considered to be short-term, so no lasting effects on water

quality are considered to occur (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2019a).

Impact on hydrography

Studies have shown that offshore wind power can affect hydrographic conditions also during

continuous operation, both at the surface and at the foundations (Arneborg et al., 2024). The

effects on surface water occur when the wind behind the wind farms decreases, which in turn can

affect currents and stratification in the surface water. The foundations have a small impact in that

they slow sea currents and create turbulence that mixes different water layers. The effects of an

offshore wind farm can spread beyond its boundaries and also lead to second-round effects and

impacts on marine life (see also section 2.3.1). The marine spatial plan does not provide

guidance on any additional area for offshore wind energy in the Baltic Sea. However, expected

expansion in Skagerrak/Kattegat and Gulf of Bothnia may also be relevant in terms of impact on

hydrographic conditions, as the effects may spread beyond the wind farm's boundaries. The

Baltic Sea is a particularly vulnerable sea area in terms of the expansion of oxygen-free seabeds.

Possible consequences and large-scale effects of energy development in other marine spatial

planning areas also need to be investigated in terms of potential effects in the Baltic Sea.

Changes in emissions and air quality

Increased maritime transport in connection with sand extraction and transport between extraction

sites is expected to lead to increased air emissions and a marginal deterioration of air quality

locally. The proposal for a marine spatial plan for the Baltic Sea provides guidance on several

investigation areas for shipping through the central Baltic Sea. These include the transfer of

maritime traffic that today passes through Hoburgs bank and Norra Midsjöbanken to a deep water

fairway south and east of the bank. The shift entails an approximately five percent longer journey

distance and an approximately 2.6 percent higher fuel consumption at unchanged average

speed, which means a small negative effect on air quality throughout the marine spatial planning

area (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2019b). In addition to investiongation

areas for shipping, the marine spatial plan guidance does not entail any further changes for

shipping.

- 168 -

Climate

In the Baltic Sea, only guidance on nature and particular consideration for nature protection is

relevant from a climate perspective, as the marine spatial plan does not guide any increased

energy extraction in relation to the zero alternative.

Climate benefits linked to energy extraction through offshore wind power

The potential climate benefit in the Baltic Sea is presented in a similar table as for other marine

spatial planning areas, the existing offshore wind farm Lillgrund has an effect of 0.1 TWh, and

Krieger's Flak, which is licensed, is estimated to have an effect of 1.5 TWh.

Table 24. Shows results of calculation for potential climate benefit when offshore wind power replaces the Nordic residual mix according to plan proposals, zero alternatives and the current situation in the Baltic Sea.

Guidance on nature protection and particular consideration Carbon sequestration and adaptation

to climate change

The marine spatial planning guides on both nature protection (N) and consideration of high values

for nature protection (n), marine areas protected against disturbances and impacts can generally

be assumed to have better conditions both to deal with climate change by conserving biodiversity,

and better conditions to store carbon when they are to some extent protected from disturbances.

There are no data or figures that describe the potential and ability for carbon sequestration in

different benthic habitats and sediments in a Swedish national context. Norwegian researchers

have mapped carbon sequestration in Norwegian marine areas, and concluded that benthic

habitats of different character have different abilities and conditions to contribute to carbon

sequestration, both in shorter and longer time perspectives. An important conclusion of the study

is that benthic habitats that are left undisturbed have greater potential to act as natural carbon

sinks (Diesing et al., 2024).

In the Baltic Sea, the total area for guidance on nature and particular consideration for high

nature value amounts to 74,850 square kilometres, which makes up approximately 43% of the

Baltic Sea's marine spatial plan area. It is evenly divided between guidance on nature (20.5%)

and particular consideration for high nature values (22.5 %).

TWh Climate impact

Offshore wind energy

(11 000 tonnes CO2-

equivalent/TWh)

Nordic residual mix

(524 100 tonnes

CO2-equivalent/

TWh)

Potential CO2-

equivalent

reduction

Potential

reduction in

relation to

Sweden’s

emissions in

2023

Existing

offshore wind

energy in the

Baltic Sea

0,1 1 100 52 410 51 310 0.1%

Zero

alternatives

(permitted

projects)

1,5 16 500 786 150 769 650 1,6 %

Proposal for a

marine spatial

plan

0 0 0 0 0 %

- 169 -

In the Baltic Sea, climate refugias for blue mussels, bladderwrack, herring and cod have been

part of the basis for the guidance, which is positive in terms of the chances of ecosystems and

particular species to survive in a changed climate (Hammar & Mattsson, 2017). The marine

spatial plan guidance on nature and particular consideration for high nature values is assessed to

promote and enhance important ecosystem services significant for adaptation to a changing

climate.

In southern Sweden, coastal erosion is expected to become more common as a result of climate

change and sea level rise (Malmberg et al. 2016). The marine spatial plan guides sand extraction

in three areas of the Baltic Sea, which means that sand from the seabed can be used for beach

nourishment and climate adaptation measures.

Landscape

In the Baltic Sea marine spatial plan area there are two energy areas (Ö285, Ö287). As the

energy areas are built or licensed, they are included in the zero alternative and are therefore not

subject to an impact assessment. Figure 49 below shows the energy areas and landscape impact

in the Baltic Sea.

- 170 -

Figure 49. Potential negative effect on landscapes of proposed energy areas in the Baltic Sea. In the energy areas, dark color shows great effect and light color shows little effect. Accumulated visibility from land is shown over the sea and visibility of energy areas is shown over land.

- 171 -

Other impacts on landscapes

As energy areas in the Baltic Sea marine spatial plan area are built or have permits, no other

impact on landscapes is assessed.

Cumulative and transboundary effects

Although no impact assessment is carried out for energy areas in the Baltic Sea, those energy

areas in the zero alternative may have negative effects on landscapes in Denmark around

Öresund, as well as the northern part of Rügen in Germany.

The cumulative impact of energy areas is mainly linked to areas around Skanör-Falsterbo in

southwestern Skåne, where existing energy area Ö287 and permit-granted Ö285 can cause

cumulative impact on landscapes. This impact may increase with energy areas in neighbouring

countries.

Cultural environment

Indirect influence – National interest in cultural heritage conservation, Chapter 3, Section 6 of the

Environmental Code

In the Baltic Sea marine spatial plan area there are two energy areas (Ö285, Ö287). As the

energy areas are built or permit-granted, they are included in the zero alternative and are

therefore not subject to an impact assessment. All energy areas in the Baltic Sea are listed with

particular consideration to high cultural heritage values (small-k). The guidance on particular

consideration for high cultural heritage values is considered to entail adaptations of the location

and design of wind farms regarding, for example, the location and height of wind turbines in order

to reduce the impact on the specific cultural heritage sites concerned. Figure 50 below shows the

energy areas in the Baltic Sea.

- 172 -

Figure 50. Potential indirect negative effect of energy areas on national interest claims for cultural environment in the Baltic Sea.

- 173 -

Direct impact

In the Baltic Sea marine spatial plan area, there are no energy areas that are impact assessed for

the cultural environment, hence no marine archaeological sites within the proposed energy areas

are assessed. However, there are a number of registered marine archaeological sites in energy

areas in the zero alternative. Figure 51 presents marine archaeological sites outside energy

areas and within energy areas included in the zero alternative.

- 174 -

Figure 51. Risk of impact on marine archaeological sites.

- 175 -

Note that the compilation only refers to the sites that are registered in the Swedish National

Heritage Board's Cultural Environment Register (Riksantikvarieämbetetet, u.y.). Since knowledge

of the existence of marine archaeological sites in Swedish waters is not complete, the

establishment of offshore wind power should be preceded by marine archaeological

investigations where there may be marine archaeological sites (County Administrative Boards,

2024).

Indirect and direct impact – Regional value areas

In the Baltic Sea's marine spatial plan area there are only two energy areas, Ö285 with a permit

for the establishment of offshore wind power, and Ö287 which is built. There is therefore no

impact assessment of energy areas on marine cultural heritage values in the Baltic Sea. Fel!

Hittar inte referenskälla. shows energy areas and marine cultural heritage values in the Baltic

Sea.

- 176 -

Figure 52. Indirect and direct negative impact on regional cultural heritage value areas.

- 177 -

Other impacts on cultural environment

The coastline of the Baltic Sea marine spatial plan area is entirely of national interest for

unbroken coastline (Chapter 4, Section 3 of the Environmental Code) or high-exploited coastline

(Chapter 4, Section 4 of the Environmental Code). As energy area Ö287 is already built, and

there are permits in Ö285 it is included in the baseline option and is not subject to an impact

assessment.

Cumulative and transboundary effects

Denmark's marine spatial plan (Denmark's marine spatial plan, 2024) contains energy areas that

can affect cultural environments in Sweden. West of Bornholm there are two energy areas in the

marine spatial plan that can affect the value area Kåseberga-Sandhammaren (16.5 kilometers

away) and the national interest Sandhammaren (28 kilometers away). Furthermore, there are four

Danish energy areas in Öresund that may indirectly affect cultural environments such as the

value areas Falsterbo Peninsula and Landskrona-Pilhaken-Ven, as well as the national interest

claims Skanörs ljung, Skanör and Falsterbo, Foteviken-Glostorp, Malmö, Alnarp, Barsebäck-

Hofterup, Landskrona and Ven. The entire coast of Skåne is covered by the national interest of

high-exploited coast (Chapter 4, Section 4 of the Environmental Code).

As only energy areas in the Baltic Sea are included in the zero alternative, the cumulative impact

is not assessed. However, the energy areas in the Baltic Sea together with energy areas in

neighbouring countries can give rise to indirectly negative cumulative effects on cultural

environments in Sweden, especially along the coast of Skåne.

- 178 -

Effects on the management of water, soil and the physical

environment in general

Energy extraction

The planning area has very good conditions for offshore wind power in terms of wind and depth

conditions. However, the proposed marine spatial plan does not guide use for energy extraction

in addition to existing wind farms, Kårehamn (not visible for cartographic reasons), Lillgrund, and

the Krieger’s Flak area, where a licensed project is located, see Figure 53 below.

- 179 -

Figure 53. Map of energy areas in plan proposals, zero alternatives, and initial planning basis The Swedish Energy Agency 2023.

- 180 -

Area-specific assessments, nature and conditions for energy extraction

The proposed marine spatial plan does not provide guidance on additional areas for energy

extraction other than the existing wind farm, Ö287 Lillgrund, and the area Ö285 Krieger’s Flak,

where a licensed project is located. Guidance on additional areas for energy extraction in addition

to these two is not available in the plan with reference to government decisions and rejection of a

number of project applications in plan areas with reference to defence interests. For more

information see the marine spatial plan section 2.4.1.

The two energy areas that remain in the plan proposal since the review proposal are included in

the impact assessment zero alternative and, in addition, no further areas are assessed. Potential

for energy extraction and electricity production is estimated based on surfaces for energy

extraction, for plan proposals corresponding to this approximately 1.6 TWh. The conditions for

energy extraction based on the nature of wind and depth are considered to be very good, with

relatively good wind conditions and located in relatively shallow areas.

The zero alternative for assessment is the existing wind farm, as well as a licensed project

Krieger's Flak Ö265. Taken together, these two areas correspond to an area of approximately 80

km2, see Table 25 below.

Table 25.Guidance energy extraction, plan proposal Baltic Sea, total area, as well as area within territorial sea and foundations.

Areas of energy; Area

About Km2

Of which km2 in territorial sea ~22km

Estimated TWh

Municipal planning area

Foundations

Ö285 Krieger's Flak

70

0,0

1,4*

-

Bottom-fixed

Ö287

Lillgrund 8

7,3

0,33 **

Malmö

Bottom-fixed

Total, approximately

About 1.6

* Assumption according to marine spatial plan, 5MW/Km2, 4000 full load hours

** according to project authorisation

Marine spatial plan, zero alternatives and guidance on energy extraction

The original planning documents of public interest of substantial importance identified 24 areas

suitable for offshore wind power in the Baltic Sea, with a total area of approximately 9,640 km2.

During the initial planning process, areas have been adjusted and some have been excluded with

regard to other interests such as defence, recreation, cultural environment and shipping. Based

on the Government’s decision to reject all applications for offshore wind farms in the sea area, the

overall assessment is that there are currently no conditions for using energy extraction in addition

to existing permits in the Baltic Proper due to the interests of defence (Ministry of Climate and

Industry 2024; Government 2024d).

Total areas for energy extraction in the draft marine spatial plan, zero alternatives, public interest

of substantial importance, national interest claims, and adopted marine spatial plan, see Table 26

below.

- 181 -

Table 26. Guidance on energy extraction, estimation of production potential, based on marine spatial plans, zero alternatives, national interest claims and public interest of substantial importance.

Indicative basis for energy extraction Baltic Sea approximate area (km2)

Plan proposal 80

Zero alternative 80

General Interest of Significant Importance, Planning Basis Step1, EM 9 640

- Of which surface in planes; 70

National interest claims 2 020

- Of which surface area in level, approx. km2 60

Plan adopted 560

Realisation, projects and bidding zones

In the plan areas there is an existing wind farm, as well as a permit-granted one. Potential

additional electricity production in the plan area is assumed to be connected to bidding zone 4.

For more detailed information on electricity consumption and related bidding zones and users,

please refer to chapter 2.4.1, Energy regarding electricity consumption and industry, the transport

sector and households.

The plan's guidance on energy coincides with the plan areas for the existing wind farm, the City

of Malmö.

Indirect impact - energy

Based on the fact that the plan does not guide on additional areas for energy extraction other

than already existing and permit-granted, the indirect impact on land use and the impact of the

proposed marine spatial plan is considered to be minor within the marine spatial plan area.

However, exempted areas may possibly indirectly affect other plan areas in terms of establishing

offshore wind power.

Achievement of objectives, national and municipal interests - energy

Plan proposal for the Baltic Sea contributes a limited part to the achievement of objectives

regarding assignments for offshore wind power and national energy policy goals, climate goals

and goals for fossil-free electricity supply. The objective of the assignment for all marine spatial

plans corresponds to a total of 120TWh, which means that the relatively large marine spatial plan

areas that are exempt may make it difficult to realise the objective and generate electricity. The

Baltic Sea is the largest marine spatial plan area and represents approximately 60 percent of the

total area of the marine spatial plans.

In the proposed marine spatial plan, the total area for energy extraction is approximately 80

square kilometres, corresponding to approximately 1.6 TWh, including the existing Lillgrund wind

- 182 -

farm. Compared with previously decided marine spatial plan and initial planning basis for

guidance on energy extraction, the space in the plan area has decreased significantly.

In the adopted marine spatial plan (Regeringen, 2022a) for the Baltic Sea, the corresponding total

area for guidance on energy extraction is approximately 570 km2. The total area for energy

extraction in the initial planning basis (Energy Agency 2023) is equivalent to approximately 9,600

km2, where the national interest has also been taken into account. The proposal for a marine

spatial plan for the Baltic Sea thus entails a marked reduction in the indicative use of energy in

the plan area. This could also potentially affect electricity generation in bidding zones 3 and 4 and

affected regions.

Cumulative and transboundary effects

The marine spatial plan does not provide guidance on areas for energy extraction other than

those that have been granted a permit and those that already exist, which means that cumulative

impacts, as well as impacts on neighbouring countries, are not considered within the marine

spatial plan area. However, the exclusion of energy areas in the plan area in question may

indirectly affect and entail an increased risk of cumulative effects in the other two plan areas and

neighbouring countries, based on increased concentration and the need for realisation of areas

for energy extraction in these two areas in order to achieve the target of 120TWh.

Recreation

The Baltic Sea includes high nature values, where coastal and archipelago landscapes offer good

conditions for recreation. A large part of the coast is designated as an area of national interest for

recreation under Chapter 4, Section 2 of the Environmental Code. Stockholm's outer

archipelagos, which together with the Åland Archipelago and the west coast of Finland form a

unique stretch of shallow archipelagos, in the Gotska Sandön National Park with its unique

isolated location, the islands of Öland and Gotland and the coast of Skåne are some areas that

attract many visitors. Recreational boat traffic is also an important part of recreation in the Baltic

Sea, not least in the Stockholm archipelago and to and from Gotland. In the proposal for a marine

spatial plan area, the Baltic Sea has two energy areas: Ö285 and Ö287. As the energy areas are

built or permit-granted, they are included in the zero alternative and are therefore not subject to

an impact assessment. Thus, no negative impact on recreation from these energy areas is

assessed. Figure 53 below shows the energy areas in the Baltic Sea.

- 183 -

Figure 54. Potential negative effect on recreation of proposed energy extraction areas in the Gulf of Bothnia. Dark color shows great effect and light color shows little effect.

- 184 -

Accessibility

As the two energy areas Ö285 and Ö287 in the Baltic Sea marine spatial planning area are built

or licensed and are included in the zero alternative, they are not subject to an impact

assessment. Regardless, recreation along the coast and inside the marine spatial planning area

is widespread with several different activities and experiences that may affect accessibility when

establishing offshore wind power.

Leisure boating in the Baltic Sea occurs mainly along the coastline with the greatest activity in the

Stockholm archipelago, around and to and from Gotland and Öland, as well as along the coasts

of Småland, Skåne and Blekinge. There are major tendencies towards recreational shipping

routes within the marine spatial planning area, but also within the marine spatial planning area,

such as to and from Gotland and in the Hanö Bay, as well as to our neighbouring countries. The

activity of recreational shipping can be viewed in a general way using information from automatic

identification systems (AIS data). Not all recreational craft use AIS, which means that the actual

prevalence of recreational craft is more extensive. See Figure 55 for recreational boating in the

Baltic Sea.

- 185 -

Figure 55. Prevalence of recreational boating activity within proposed energy areas in the Baltic Sea based on an average of hours per month in the years 2017 – 2022 (EMODnet, 2022).

- 186 -

Other impacts on recreation

The coastline of the Baltic Sea marine spatial plan area is entirely of national interest for

unbroken coastline (Chapter 4, Section 3 of the Environmental Code) or high-exploited coastline

(Chapter 4, Section 4 of the Environmental Code). As energy areas Ö285 and Ö287 are licensed

and built, they are included in the zero alternative and are not subject to an impact assessment.

However, the coastal zone in Skåne is of great importance for recreation along the beaches, not

least around Skanör-Falsterbo.

Cumulative and transboundary effects

Denmark's marine spatial plan (2024) contains energy areas that can affect recreation in

Sweden. Energy areas west of Bornholm that may affect the national interest claim The coast

stretch Trelleborg-Abbekås-Sandhammaren-Mälarhusen-Simrishamn indirectly, which also

German energy areas south of Skåne can potentially do. The Skanör-Falsterbo peninsula with

the coastline Höllviken-Trelleborg can also be affected by German energy areas. Furthermore,

there are primarily two Danish energy areas in Öresund that may indirectly affect recreation

around Skanör-Falsterbo, which are located about 12.5 kilometers and 16 kilometers from the

national interest claim. The Danish energy area Nordre Flint outside Malmö may have some

indirect impact on recreation in the national interest claims Höje å from Genarp to Lomma,

Kävlingeån from Vombsjön to Bjärred and Ven. The national interest claims include values of

natural and cultural environment and have appealing landscape images, but the impact is

considered to be marginal given the degree of exploitation in Öresund.

Due to the fact that the two energy areas in the Baltic Sea marine spatial plan area are built or

licensed, its possible effects on recreation in neighbouring countries are not assessed. Crossings

for pleasure boats to and from neighbouring countries are generally considered to be large

throughout the marine spatial plan area, with the greatest concentration in South Kvarken and

Åland, to and from the Danish islands Zealand, Mön, Falster and Bornholm, and northern parts of

Germany, where energy areas in Sweden and its neighbouring countries can entail barrier

effects.

As the energy areas Ö285 and Ö287 are included in the zero alternative for the Baltic Sea marine

spatial plan area, the cumulative impact is also not assessed. However, the energy areas

included in the zero alternative, together with energy areas in neighbouring countries, may

constitute indirect effects that negatively affect recreation areas in Sweden. The coast of Skåne

can potentially be most affected, especially the national interest for recreation Skanör-Falsterbo

peninsula with the coastline Höllviken-Trelleborg and the coastline Trelleborg-Abbekås-

Sandhammaren-Mälarhusen-Simrishamn.

Tourism

In the Baltic Sea there is a developed tourism industry, important for several of the coastal

municipalities located in the area (Region Sörmland, 2024: County of Regio Kalmar, u.y.; Region

Gotland, 2024) In the marine spatial planning area there are two energy areas, one built on and

one with a permit. Since no new energy areas are involved, the assessment is that there is no

risk of negative impact on the tourism industry in the area from offshore wind power.

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Defence

No assessment is made at marine spatial planning level for the interests of defence. See chapter

2.4.4 for general effects.

Shipping

The Baltic marine spatial plan area is the plan area with the relatively highest maritime intensity.

In the planning area, there is extensive maritime traffic, both national and international, to and

from ports, with shipping routes to and from Sweden and the countries around the Baltic Sea and

passages for transport to different parts of the world. Maritime transport includes freight vessels,

tankers and also relatively high proportion of passenger vessels (EMODnet, 2022). The plan area

also includes fairway and shipping lanes that are part of international IMO (International Maritime

Organization) routing systems, including the Baltic Sea deep water route south of Gotland. The

routing system is a vessel traffic control measure aimed at reducing the risk of accidents.

However, the proposed marine spatial plan does not guide use for energy extraction other than

the existing wind farm, Lillgrund (Ö287), and the Kriegers flak area (Ö285), where a licensed

project is located, see Figure 56.

Based on the Government’s decision to reject all applications for offshore wind farms in the area,

the overall assessment is that there are currently no conditions for using energy extraction in

addition to existing permits in the Baltic Proper due to the interests of defence (Ministry of Climate

and Industry 2024; Government 2024d). The draft marine spatial plan does not therefore provide

guidance on additional areas for use for energy production other than the existing wind farm,

Lillgrund, and the Krieger’s Flak area, where a licensed project is located. For this reason, there

is no further assessment of the impact on shipping for the current planning document related to

energy extraction.

The marine spatial plan's guidance on the use of shipping is based on national interest claims for

shipping and thus largely coincides with established shipping lanes and shipping routes.

However, the marine spatial plan provides guidance on maritime investigation areas at Hoburg’s

Shoal, Midsjöbankarna and Salvorev. Investigation areas are included in the adopted plan and

mean that the plan proposes redirection of shipping, but more investigation is required to

establish in the plan. The investigation option is described in the adopted marine spatial plan with

environmental impact assessment and sustainability report, and includes diversion of shipping

away from sensitive natural areas to protect birds and critically endangered marine mammals.

However, changed extended mileage is assumed to lead to increased fuel consumption and

increased emissions of airborne pollutants and greenhouse gases (Swedish Agency for Marine

and Water Management, 2019a; 2019b). The long-term impact depends on the development of

ships, energy efficiency and fuels in shipping, as well as other external factors. Re-routing is also

likely to increase the intensity of shipping in the deep water route of the Baltic Sea, a route with

very high traffic intensity, and with possible other indirect sequential effects.

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Figure 56. Relative potential negative effect of energy areas on shipping in the Baltic Sea. Dark color shows great effect and light color shows little effect.

- 189 -

As the plan does not guide on additional energy areas in the plan area, the assessment is that

the potential impact on shipping of plan proposals is considered to be marginal, both for Swedish

and international shipping, provided that recommendations and permits for the establishment of a

licensed wind farm take into account existing recommendations (the Swedish Maritime

Administration and the Swedish Transport Agency, 2023) regarding, among other things,

requirements for safety distances. Safety distances and other adaptations of a wind farm are

decided during the permit assessment of the park.

Cumulative and transboundary effects

The same assessment also applies to shipping to and from neighbouring countries and

international traffic in the plan area.

Commercial fishing

Fishing in the Baltic Sea's marine spatial plan area accounts for a large proportion of Swedish

commercial fishing in terms of both value and quantity of catches. The main species (period

2018-2022) are sprat and herring, following the decline of the cod stock. The area uses both

passive and active gear, with the exception of Öresund, where fishing is conducted exclusively

with passive gear. (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2025).

Commercial fishing in the Baltic Sea is geographically widespread and the marine spatial plan

states the use of commercial fishing in large parts of the plan area. Most fishing in the Baltic

marine spatial plan area is pelagic fishing for herring and sprat, which is mainly carried out in the

Baltic Sea area, based on nationally allocated quotas. Some fishing with passive gear takes place

in front of the coast. Directed fishing for cod in the Baltic Sea has been temporarily closed for

several years, but has historically mainly been conducted in the southwestern parts of the sea

area, with trawlingin the outer sea and passive fishing closer to the coast. In the plan area, fishing

is also carried out from fleets from other EU countries that have quotas in the area.

In the proposal, area Ö248 (E(utr)fn) in the agreed marine spatial plan 2022 has been removed.

In and around the area, only limited Swedish fishing has been carried out. The removal of the

area is not expected to affect commercial fishing. Otherwise, the proposed marine spatial plan

does not guide the use of energy extraction except for areas with existing permits for the

establishment of wind power.

There are proposals for expansion of areas with particular consideration to high nature values in

the Baltic Sea with regard to migratory birds, harbour porpoises and reef habitats. Areas with

special nature considerations can in the long term, depending on the nature value the

consideration refers to, benefit commercial fishing from potentially strengthening ecosystem

services.

National, regional, municipal interests

The plan's guidance on the use of commercial fishing in the Baltic Sea confirms the national

interest in commercial fishing. Several municipalities have landing ports for fish (which also

represent national interests), including the ports of Simrishamn, Nogersund in Sölvesborg

municipality, Byxelkrok in Borgholm municipality, Ronehamn in Gotland and Västervik. See

Figure 57 below.

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Figure 57. Map showing proposed areas for energy extraction, use of commercial fishing and national interest claims for commercial fishing in the Baltic Sea.

- 191 -

Overall assessment of the Baltic Sea

Nature and ecological aspects

The Baltic Sea, with its very varied natural environments, is of great importance for both breeding,

resting and wintering birds. The most important migration routes in the Baltic Sea pass through

the southern parts of Öland and Gotland and further along the coast of Blekinge and south where

virtually the entire coast of Skåne is affected with the highest concentrations across Öresund.

These passages are also considered important for migratory bats. The Baltic Sea is also home to

the main distribution area of the critically endangered Baltic harbour porpoise at and around

Midsjöbankarna and Hoburg’s Shoal. Endangered cod have important spawning grounds in the

Baltic Sea south of Skåne and east of Bornholm. The Öresund, which is characterised by several

marine saltwater species, intensive shipping and a trawling ban, completes the marine spatial

plan area of the Baltic Sea towards Skagerrak/Kattegat. New areas for particular consideration of

high nature values have been added to the plan. South of Skåne, a larger area has been

designated small n with regard to the bird migration route Rügen-Skåne. Between Öland and

southern Midsjöbanken, areas have been added with particular consideration to high nature

values for the Baltic Sea harbour porpoise. Several areas around Gotland are included in

proposals for new Natura 2000 areas under the Birds Directive and have therefore been given the

designation "small n" pending a decision. An area with particular consideration to birds has also

been added west of Gotska Sandön. The marine spatial planning guidance on sand extraction

risks leading to temporary negative effects in the form of turbidity.

Recreation, cultural environment, landscape and tourism

In the northern parts of the Baltic Sea there is the Stockholm archipelago, of national importance

for tourism. Along the mainland coast there are several national interests and national interest

claims for recreation as well as national interests, national interest claims and value areas for the

cultural environment. On Gotska Sandön there are both values for the cultural environment and

recreation, where the national park offers privacy, tranquility and a view of the open horizon.

Around Gotland and Öland there are several cultural environments both on land and below the

surface. The Hanseatic city of Visby, the agricultural landscape of Southern Öland and the naval

city of Karlskrona are world heritage sites with high cultural heritage values. National interest in

the mobile recreation in the Baltic Sea is widespread, mainly around Öland, Gotland and along

the counties of Stockholm, Östergötland and Småland. The coast along Skåne and Blekinge also

has high values for recreation and cultural environment, including Ale Stenar, Hanöbukten and

Falsterbohalvön.

Energy extraction, shipping and commercial fishing

In the Baltic Sea, only energy areas where there are permits for the establishment of offshore

wind power remain. The background to the Government's decision to reject all applications for

offshore wind farms in the sea area is the overall assessment that there are currently no

conditions for using energy extraction in addition to existing permits in the Baltic Proper due to the

interests of defence (Ministry of Climate and Industry 2024; Government 2024d). The conditions

for energy extraction in the Baltic Sea are good in terms of wind conditions and depth, and there

is also a great need for increased energy production to secure the electricity supply in southern

and central Sweden.

- 192 -

The use of shipping in the marine spatial plan is based on national interest claims for shipping

that largely coincide with established shipping lanes and shipping routes. The plan proposal also

guides the investigation of shipping, re-routing of maritime transport in order to reduce the

pressure on the marine environment. Investigation proposals are assumed to contribute to

reduced environmental impact, but also involve an extended mileage, with potentially increased

emissions. Long-term effects are dependent on the development of fuels in shipping. Re-routing

would probably also mean an increased intensity of shipping in the deep water route of the Baltic

Sea, a route with very high traffic intensity already today and with possible other indirect

sequential effects.

The plan specifies the use of commercial fishing in large parts of the Baltic Sea, based on

national interest claims for commercial fishing.

Cross-border cumulative effects

The low presence of energy areas in the Baltic Sea means that contributions to cumulative effects

are very limited on the Swedish side. The cumulative effects are those from existing wind farms

and licensed Krieger’s Flak together with energy areas in neighbouring countries. The risk of

negative impact is estimated to be greatest in the area around the southern Midsjöbanken from

energy areas in Polish waters.

- 193 -

Figure 58. Shows proposed areas for energy expansion as well as already established wind farms in the Baltic Sea for neighbouring countries.

- 194 -

Impact assessment of marine spatial plan for

Skagerrak/Kattegat

Impact on population and health

The marine spatial plan for Skagerrak/Kattegat does not provide guidance on either sand

extraction or changing shipping routes. The guidance for energy extraction is therefore what

differs from the already adopted marine spatial plan, and is particularly relevant to assess in

relation to population and human health.

There is currently no established offshore wind power in Skagerrak/Kattegat, but there are a total

of four permits for projects. Energy areas with licensed projects are included in the zero

alternative in the impact assessment against which the plan proposals are compared.

Visual impact and noise

In Kattegat there is a cluster of energy areas, three of which are included in the zero alternative.

The energy areas are located between 7 to 25 kilometers from the coast and will be visible from

land. Visual influences from both the turbines and obstacle lighting can disturb people living in

coastal areas (see Figure 59 below). However, it is individual and there is uncertainty about how

visual disturbance can directly or indirectly affect human health (see section 2.1. Population and

health). These energy areas are also in close proximity to areas of national interest for recreation,

and there is a risk that some individuals feel less motivated to visit nature areas that are

exploited. However, it is difficult to draw any direct conclusion regarding the effects of proposed

energy expansion on public health.

Offshore wind generates noise, both audible and infrasound (see section 2.1 Population and

health). Modelling for noise dispersion in various project applications shows that the overall noise

level generally decreases to 35 dBA within 5 kilometres of the outer boundary of wind farms.

Noise modelling is often based on a worst-case scenario for sound dispersion, where the

calculations assume that there is no natural attenuation of the sound. In Skagerrak/Kattegat,

proposed energy areas are located with sufficient distance from land to avoid health-damaging

effects from noise.

The energy areas in Skagerrak are located at a longer distance from the coast, which reduces the

visual impact, and the risk that people on the coast are disturbed by obstacle lighting and noise.

Maritime safety and risk

A number of proposed energy areas in Skagerrak/Kattegat are considered to pose an increased

navigation safety risk due to proximity to shipping lanes and routes. Skagerrak/Kattegat is one of

Sweden's busiest sea areas, both in terms of freight traffic and recreational boat traffic (see

sections 5.4.2 and 5.4.5). Similar to the assessment of the marine spatial plan for the Gulf of

Bothnia, there is a higher risk of marine accidents that indirectly entail a higher risk of adverse

effects on human health.

- 195 -

Reducing Health Hazardous Emissions

There are also indirect health benefits from offshore wind power. The deployment of offshore

wind energy in proposed energy areas can lead to a reduction in emissions, and be a mitigation

measure to reduce the effects of climate change that threaten the welfare and security of that

society (see Section 2.3.2). Effects on air emissions and climate benefits are indirect and long-

term effects of marine spatial plans that in the long term are expected to contribute positively to

human health. In a shorter time perspective, local emissions may increase due to construction

works and increased traffic, or diversion of ship traffic. However, this is transitory and the net

effect of building wind power is positive in terms of the potential to replace fossil-based energy

carriers, thereby leading to reduced emissions of greenhouse gases and other airborne

pollutants.

- 196 -

Figure 59. Map showing distances between energy areas and urban areas in the marine spatial plan area of Skagerrak/Kattegat. Source: Statistics Sweden, 2020.

- 197 -

Effects on protected animal or plant species and

biodiversity

Birds

There are two main migratory bird paths over the marine spatial plan area of Skagerrak/Kattegat:

in Skagerrak/Kattegat runs a route in a southwest-northeast direction between Skagen in

Denmark to the archipelago area in Bohuslän between Tjörn in the south and Smögen in the

north. In Kattegat, another southwest-northeast migration route extends from the Grenå area over

Anholt in Danish waters to the Falkenberg-Varberg area. The proposed energy areas within these

two migratory routes – V359 in the north and V317 and V364 in the south – are considered to

entail a risk of large or medium impact on migrating birds. V359 risks affecting a migratory bird

corridor used by birds of prey during the spring migration, many of which are red-listed. The

Swedish Environmental Protection Agency considers that the risk of collisions and barrier effects

is high as the area is located in the middle of a relatively narrow migration corridor (Energy

Agency, 2023a). V359 may also pose a risk to bird species moving in a north-south direction

between Skagerrak and Kattegat.

The migratory corridor in the south is also important for birds of prey. It is estimated that three to

four thousand birds of prey follow this route during the spring route. Parts of V305 and V317 are

at risk of negatively affecting the bird path. The more coastal energy zones V317 and V364 carry

a certain risk of negative impacts on coastal species and coastal breeding species foraging in the

sea. For these species, the establishment of wind power in the above-mentioned energy areas

constitutes a possible barrier to the foraging areas further out to sea. V364 is bordered to the

south by the Natura 2000 area Northwest Skåne Sea Area, which is designated, among other

things, for the protection of wintering ducks and other seabirds.

Cumulative and transboundary effects

The energy area V357 is included in the baseline option and, together with area V359, would

pose a cumulative risk of impact on birds.

The area in Kattegat bounded by Fladen in the north and Stora Middelgrund in the south as well

as towards the coast is of international importance for several seabirds, including guillemot,

razorbill and three-toed gulls. These species show varying degrees of sensitivity to offshore wind

(Leemans & Collier, 2022). Although each proposed energy extraction area affects only a small

part of the entire area used by the birds, there is a high risk that the habitats of the different

species will be fragmented or parts of them will become inaccessible if all energy areas were to

develop.

In Kattegat, energy areas V303, V305 and V361 are included in the zero alternative. Of these,

special area V361 is considered to have a high risk of negative impact on birds. The cumulative

picture for Kattegat is that establishing all energy areas in the plan together with those in the zero

alternative would create a risk of major negative impact on birds.

On the Danish side, there are plans for the establishment of wind power in both Skagerrak and

Kattegat which are considered to further contribute to the risk of negative impact on migratory

birds. Norway currently has no plans to establish offshore wind power in eastern Skagerrak.

- 198 -

Figure 60. Potential negative effect on migratory birds of proposals for energy extraction areas in Skagerrak/Kattegat. Dark color shows great effect and light color shows little effect.

- 199 -

Figure 61. Potential negative effect on wintering areas for birds of proposals for energy extraction areas in Skagerrak/Kattegat. Dark color shows great effect and light color shows little effect.

- 200 -

Bats

In Skagerrak/Kattegat, the knowledge base on the presence and risk of impact on bats is

particularly weak. There is a great need for additional analyses of migration routes and foraging

areas.

There is a migration route in the spring from Skagen's cape in Denmark eastwards towards the

Swedish coast. Otherwise, it is the coastal energy areas in Halland that can have a negative

effect on foraging bats and a potential migration route via Anholt and over to the Halland coast.

An overall assessment gives a medium risk of impact on bats in Skagerrak/Kattegat.

Cumulative and transboundary effects

It is especially the energy area V303 within the zero alternative that is considered to be able to

contribute to cumulative effects on bats in the potential migration route from Denmark via Anholt.

Several energy areas in the Danish marine spatial plan are considered to have a risk of

contributing to cumulative negative impacts on bats, but the state of knowledge is too uncertain

for more precise assessments of the risk of impacts.

- 201 -

Figure 62. Potential negative effect on bats of proposed energy areas in Skagerrak/Kattegat. Dark color shows great effect and light color shows little effect.

- 202 -

Marine mammals

There are harbour seals, harbour porpoises and, to a limited extent, grey seals in

Skagerrak/Kattegat.

Harbour seal

The harbour seal is close to the coast and rests on islets and skerries. The harbour seal, like

other seals in Swedish waters, does not achieve good environmental status according to the

latest assessment (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2024a). The harbour

seal is not as sensitive to impulsive underwater noise as the harbour porpoise. Effects from the

construction phase are considered to be minimised to negligible levels if mitigation measures are

taken in the construction phase.

Harbour porpoise

In Skagerrak/Kattegat, the Skagerrak/Kattegat population of harbour porpoises has one large and

several small (but important) reproduction areas, mainly in Skagerrak (Wijkmark, 2015).

Particularly worthy of protection for this population is the area at the northern tip of Jutland, which

is part of a large reproduction area.

In Kattegat, Fladen and Lilla och Stora Middelgrund are the most important areas for the harbour

porpoise. These are mainly used by the Belt Sea population. Neither the population in the

Skagerrak nor the Belt Sea population is currently endangered, but is classified as of least

concern in the Swedish Species List (Artdatabanken, u.y.), but in the latest status assessment

under the Marine Environment Ordinance, the Belt Sea population is not considered to be in good

status in any part of the Swedish assessment area.

The energy areas V303 and V361 near Fladen and Lilla Middelgrund as well as V317, V305 and

V364 adjacent to Morup's embankment are estimated to have a potential medium negative effect

on harbour porpoises.

If account is taken of when in the season construction works are carried out to avoid damage and

mitigation measures are used, the effects on harbour porpoises are not considered to have a

negative impact on populations in Skagerrak/Kattegat. There is a lack of knowledge about the

long-term effects of continuous noise from wind farms on harbour porpoises. Further research

and follow-up of actual impact is therefore important and that the conditions for decided parks

include that the operator uses the best possible technology to minimize avoidance behaviour of

harbour porpoises and ensured that during normal operation there are no noise levels that lead to

harmful levels for harbour porpoises.

See Figure 63 for a map of impact assessment for harbour porpoises in Skagerrak/Kattegat.

Grey seal

A small number of grey seals are also found along the Swedish west coast. The consideration

that will be taken to minimise disturbance of harbour porpoises in the construction of energy

areas in Skagerrak/Kattegat will also indirectly exclude negative effects on grey seals.

- 203 -

Cumulative and transboundary effects

The energy area V357 included in the zero alternative is assessed to have a potential medium

negative impact on harbour porpoises in the construction phase as the area overlaps with a

harbour porpoise denser area extending into the Danish sea area.

In Danish waters there are several energy areas in Kattegat. Together with the proposed energy

areas in the plan proposal, they are considered to have a medium negative cumulative impact on

both Skagerrak/Kattegat and Belt Sea populations of harbour porpoises.

- 204 -

Figure 63. Potential negative effect of proposed energy areas on harbour porpoises in Skagerrak/Kattegat. Dark color shows great effect and light color shows little effect.

- 205 -

Benthic habitats

The generally greater biodiversity in Skagerrak/Kattegat compared to the Baltic Sea and the Gulf

of Bothnia entails a greater risk of negative bottom impact from offshore wind power in this

marine spatial planning area. An analysis of potential bottom impact made with Symphony gives

a large negative effect on benthic habitats for the coastal energy area V305 and medium impact

for V364, both in southern Kattegat. For both areas, the negative effect is primarily on the photic

soft bottom, that is, sunlight-exposed soft bottom. In general, wind power installations should

avoid disturbing or causing the loss of benthic habitats worthy of protection. One example of such

is the so-called bubble reefs that occur in Kattegat. Known occurrences of bubble reefs do not

exist within proposed energy areas in the marine spatial plan, but consideration should

nevertheless be given to design to avoid damage to potential biotopes worthy of protection.

Other energy areas in Skagerrak/Kattegat have a small negative effect on benthic habitats in the

analysis. See Figure 64 below.

- 206 -

Figure 64. Potential negative effect of proposed energy areas on the benthic habitat in Skagerrak/Kattegat. Dark blue color shows medium effect and light green blue color shows little effect.

- 207 -

In Skagerrak/Kattegat, bottom trawling is conducted, which has negative effects on the benthic

habitats. Bottom trawling is different in intensity in different areas. In the assessment of good

environmental status made for Skagerrak/Kattegat, the limit value for physical disturbance and

physical loss is considered to have been exceeded. This means that activities with physical

impact must decrease in extent if there is to be room for new activities with physical impact. Since

bottom trawling is one of the main pressures on the benthic habitat in Skagerrak/Kattegat and a

dynamic one, it is relevant to see in which areas it contributes the most disturbance. In such

areas, a wind power installation with about 1-2% bottom impact could have been an improvement

from a bottom pressure perspective compared to bottom trawling that impacts a significantly

larger part of the seabed. This can be seen as a positive net local impact.

In Symphony, this has been analysed with assumptions that trawling is not possible in energy

areas with floating foundations and assumptions of a 50% reduction in trawling in energy areas

with solid foundations. No assumptions have been made about the displacement of the fishing

effort. Movement is likely because the fishing quota is likely to govern the effort, i.e. fishing is

likely to take place elsewhere to fill the fishing quota. This would mean a concentration of the

fishing pressure compared to the current situation. There are uncertainties in these assumptions

and how bottom trawling will adapt.

According to the Symphony analysis, a medium positive local net effect from a bottom pressure

perspective can be obtained for energy area V352, V359 and V361. A small positive local net

effect can be obtained for V317 and V364 in the southern Kattegat and in area V360 in the

Natura 2000 site Bratten. See Figure 63 below. These results naturally coincide with the areas

that are important for commercial fishing. A balance must therefore be struck between energy use

and commercial fishing. Two interests sharing a limited bottom pressure space.

- 208 -

Figure 65. Potential positive local net effect of energy areas on the benthic habitat in Skagerrak/Kattegat if energy use replaces bottom trawling. Dark color shows great effect and light color shows little effect.

- 209 -

Cumulative and transboundary effects

The effects on benthic habitats are considered to be primarily local and temporary, in addition to

the establishment of a new hard bottom substrate at a plant in the soft bottom. In

Skagerrak/Kattegat, such substrates can act as artificial reefs and attract biodiversity, but they

also risk being stepping stones for invasive alien species. Therefore, the assessment does not

give any positive or negative effect to new hard bottom substrates. In energy area V303 there are

several known occurrences of bubble reefs that need to be taken into account in particular.

The risk of cumulative bottom effects in relation to wind farms planned in Danish waters is

considered to be mainly linked to potential reef effects and the risk of spreading alien species.

Fish and spawning grounds

The main parts of Skagerrak/Kattegat have the potential for fish spawning, but several species'

primary spawning grounds are outside Skagerrak/Kattegat. This applies, for example, to saithe,

whiting and mackerel spawning in the northern or central North Sea.

In Skagerrak/Kattegat, the conducted Symphony analysis results in that the energy areas V352

and V360 in the north may have a medium negative effect and the energy areas V317 and V364

in the south a small negative effect on spawning areas.

More detailed assessments need to be made prior to the possible establishment of wind power in

these areas. Conditions differ between different areas, which requires area-specific surveys and

adaptations (Öhman, 2023).

In Kattegat, the proposed energy area V317 overlaps with an area that is designated as a

national interest due to its importance for cod play and upbringing. The area is therefore

considered to have been able to have a major negative effect on spawning and nursery areas.

The establishment of offshore wind power in accordance with the plan proposal entails a risk of

impact, which requires consideration and adaptation, in particular during the construction phase.

- 210 -

Figure 66. Potential negative effects on fish and fish spawning in Skagerrak/Kattegat. Dark color shows great effect and light color shows little effect.

- 211 -

A reduction in fishing activities may occur as a result of the establishment of offshore wind power

according to the plan proposal. The reduction could lead to reduced fishing pressure on the fish

resource and benefit the recovery of the resource. However, how fishing will be affected and

adapted to possible wind power establishment cannot be predicted at present. It is therefore also

not possible to assess how large such a positive effect could be. Similarly, the environmental

impact assessment of the adopted marine spatial plan highlights that the marine spatial plan’s

guidance on particular consideration for high nature values can contribute to the introduction of

provisions for more low-impact fishing, which is considered to have a small positive effect on the

fish resource (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2019a). Regulations may

relate, for example, to adaptations for reduced by-catch or reduced impact on the seabed during

bottom trawling. However, whether and, if so, how such adaptations could be introduced is not

foreseeable at present, and thus also the potential positive effects on fish.

The overall assessment is that the plan proposal has a small negative effect on fish and fish

spawning.

Cumulative and transboundary effects

The extent of energy establishment in Skagerrak/Kattegat affects the risk of negative effects on

fish and fish spawning. The energy area V317 is considered to have the greatest negative effect

and should therefore preferably be avoided.

Energy areas in Danish waters has similar conditions to negatively affect fish and fish spawning.

Here too, spawning periods should be taken into account in order to minimise the risk of adverse

effects.

Impact of proposals for new areas with particular consideration to high nature

values

In Skagerrak/Kattegat, there are proposals for additional areas for particular consideration of high

nature values in an area for general use (V308). The area is proposed by the Swedish

Environmental Protection Agency as a new Natura 2000 area under the Birds Directive. It also

has valuable occurrences of bubble reefs.

A supplement to areas for particular consideration of high nature values can be found in the

proposed energy area (V357) as a bird area because it is located in a migratory bird path from

Skagen to the Swedish west coast.

There are also proposals to supplement areas for particular consideration of high nature values in

the northern Skagerrak within the marine protected area Bratten. The proposals are less

extensive than those received from the County Administrative Board of Västra Götaland. SwAM

has seen a value in prioritizing among areas. Examples of areas not included are those north and

south of Bratten.

The defence area V319 is proposed for particular consideration of high nature values.

The areas for particular consideration for high nature values in Skagerrak/Kattegat complement

the existing relatively extensive network of protected areas. The proposed new areas with the

designation "small n" are considered to be able to provide guidance on particular consideration

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for sustainable use when establishing wind power and other uses such as commercial fishing.

Together with agreed areas for particular consideration of high nature values, the proposals are

considered to contribute to a preventive consideration that can contribute to green infrastructure

and ecosystem services and to the achievement of conservation objectives for biodiversity.

Figure 67 shows the areas with nature use and particular consideration for high nature values

within the marine spatial planning area Skagerrak/Kattegat.

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Figure 67. Areas using nature (N) and decided on the respective proposals for new areas with particular consideration to high nature values (n) in Skagerrak/Kattegat (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management 2024c).

.

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Effects on land, soil, water, air, climate, landscape,

settlement and cultural environment

Water and air

In Skagerrak/Kattegat, it is the marine spatial plan’s guidance on energy extraction that is

assessed to affect air and water. For effects on air, the assessment refers to changes in

emissions of airborne pollutants as a result of the marine spatial plan guidance. Effects on water

as a habitat refer to changes in the physical and chemical conditions of water as a result of the

marine spatial plan guidance on the different uses.

Turbidity and dispersal of sediments

Offshore wind power construction and associated cabling are activities that are expected to

lead to increased local turbidity and negative local impact on water quality. The turbidity itself

can lead to sequential effects on marine life and particular attention needs to be paid to

benthic habitats and organisms that are sensitive to impacts (see also section 2.3.1).

Turbidity can also occur during maintenance and decommissioning. The effects are generally

considered to be transient and local, and thus insignificant in terms of the marine spatial

planning area as a whole and the estimated lifespan of the wind farms.

Dispersal of pollutants

During the construction phase, it is important that sediments and benthic habitats are

carefully examined to avoid the spread of contaminants. In Skagerrak/Kattegat plan area,

there are a number of environmentally hazardous wrecks (the Swedish Agency for Marine

and Water Management, Miljöfarliga Wrecks web map, u.y.) that, when affected, can spread

pollution. There is also some increased risk of dumped ammunitions and mines in some

areas (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2025).

In Skagerrak/Kattegat there are three national environmental monitoring stations where the

Swedish Geological Survey collects data to monitor the state and trends of environmental

toxic pressures in marine sediments. The installation of offshore wind power in several

energy areas may affect sampling and stations in the vicinity of energy areas may need to be

moved, see Figure 68 below. Other marine environmental monitoring may also be affected

by expansion in energy areas.

Hydrographic effects

Studies have shown that offshore wind power can affect hydrographic conditions during

continuous operation, both at the surface and at the foundations (Arneborg et al., 2024). The

effects in the surface water occur when the wind behind the wind farms decreases, which in

turn can affect currents and stratification in the surface water. The foundations affect by

slowing sea currents and creating turbulence that mixes different water layers. The effects of

offshore wind energy can spread beyond the boundaries of the park and also lead to

sequential effects and consequences for marine life (see section 2.2.1). Skagerrak/Kattegat

with the Skagerrak in the north has a good water turnover through the direct connection with

Skagerrak/Kattegat. Kattegat is a transitional zone to the Baltic Sea where water masses and

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streams with different salinity mix (Havet.nu, 2023a). The plan proposal indicate an extensive

energy area expansion especially in combination with the zero alternative. It is therefore

important to investigate the effects of changes in hydrographic conditions. Hydrographic

changes in Kattegat may also have effects in the Baltic Sea. Consideration also needs to be

given to the effects of energy expansion in neighbouring countries in terms of cumulative

impacts on hydrography and potential sequential effects.

Changes in emissions and air quality

The establishment of offshore wind power can lead to increased maritime transport for the

construction and servicing of the wind farms. This in turn can lead to higher air emissions to a

limited extent. Shipping and commercial fishing may also need to adapt routes to avoid offshore

wind power, which could potentially lead to shifts in mileage and changes in air emissions.

However, these effects can be seen as marginal in relation to the total emissions of these

sectors.

The expansion of offshore wind energy can also make a positive contribution to air quality by

replacing other energy production that generates greenhouse gas emissions. This depends on

the energy source being replaced, and the effects are regional and long-term. The overall

assessment is that guidance on energy extraction has a positive effect on air quality.

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Figure 68. Displays sampling stations for marine environmental monitoring as well as proposed energy areas including the zero alternative.

- 217 -

Climate

The marine spatial plan's guidance on nature conservation, particular consideration for high

nature values and energy extraction are the aspects that are most relevant in terms of climate

impact in Skagerrak/Kattegat. The marine spatial plan provides guidance on five additional

energy areas, in addition to the zero alternative, which in Skagerrak/Kattegat consists of the four

energy areas where various projects have been granted permits for offshore wind power. The

establishment of offshore wind power in energy use areas has the potential to provide society

with renewable and fossil-free energy. The expected negative climate-related impacts of energy

establishment are time-limited and small compared to the marine spatial plan’s contribution to

renewable energy in the longer term. The marine spatial plan's guidance on energy areas in

Skagerrak/Kattegat means that there is great potential to contribute to Sweden's climate goals.

There are both direct and indirect effects in terms of potential climate benefits. Guidance on

protected natural areas can indirectly lead to climate benefits as these areas are protected from

interventions that negatively affect the marine environment, which in turn affects both ecosystem

resilience and the ability to store organic carbon.

Climate benefits linked to energy extraction through offshore wind power

Fossil-free energy production is central to the climate transition by enabling the electrification of

society (Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, 2023a, Government, 2021b). Southern

Sweden generally has a large energy demand, and the metropolitan region in Västra Götaland

County has the second highest electricity consumption in a comparison between counties (see

section 2.4.1). Offshore wind power is a renewable energy that has low climate emissions from a

life cycle perspective (Energy Authority 2021), and the direct climate benefit consists of the fact

that offshore wind power can replace energy production that has a higher climate impact. Climate

benefit could also be achieved by using energy as an energy carrier to electrify the industry and

transport sector, which currently accounts for a fair share of Sweden's greenhouse gas emissions

(Energy Authority, 2024). Indirectly, climate benefits can also arise from the fact that the

electricity produced is exported to other countries, thereby replacing other energy production with

higher emissions (see section 2.3.2).

There are several uncertainties and limitations to make a quantitative estimate and calculation of

the climate benefit. Among other things, the final climate benefit depends on how many energy

areas, and how much of individual areas are realized. It also depends on the method used to

estimate potential energy production. The marine spatial planning uses a more conservative

calculation for potential energy production, some designs indicate a higher power density, a

reasonable range would be to assess that the areas in the proposed marine spatial plan allow

between 21-30 TWh in Skagerrak/Kattegat (see also section 3.4.1). Furthermore, there are other

factors that can determine the actual climate benefit. This may include factors such as how much

capacity there is in the electricity grid and infrastructure, how other energy production and

associated climate emissions are changing and what the electricity demand will look like in the

future.

Chapter 2 (section 2.3.2) presents a reasoning to estimate potential climate benefits, this

reasoning was also the basis for calculations made in the previous sustainability report (Swedish

Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2019b) and is based on comparing the climate

impact between offshore wind power and residual mix. The climate impact from offshore wind

power is approximately 11 000 tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent per TWh (Energy Authority,

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2021) corresponding to 524 100 tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent for the residual mix in 2024

(Energy Market Inspectorate, 2024). Calculations according to the same method for the proposal

for a marine spatial plan for Skagerrak/Kattegat show that the plan's guidance on energy

extraction has great potential to contribute to climate benefits. Table 27 below also shows a

comparison between potential CO2 emission reductions per TWh and Sweden’s total emissions

in 2023 (SCB, 2024). As mentioned above, it is not possible to interpret the result as realistic, as

several variables in the calculations are not definitive, but it gives an indication that there is a

great potential for the supply of renewable and fossil-free energy production according to the

marine spatial plan's guidance. In general, it is reasonable to assume that the climate benefit is

initially greater, and decreases over time when the inferior energy sources are replaced.

Table 27. Shows results of calculation for potential climate benefit when offshore wind power replaces fossil in the Nordic residual mix according to plan proposals, zero alternatives and current situation in Skagerrak/Kattegat.

Changes in greenhouse gas emissions

Proposals for marine spatial plans with energy areas may have an impact on other uses with a

potential impact on greenhouse gas emissions. This applies, for example, to possible changes in

the mileage of shipping and commercial fishing. Skagerrak/Kattegat is one of Sweden's most

well-trafficed seas, both in terms of freight traffic and pleasure boat traffic. Fixed installations at

sea may be an obstacle to vessels, requiring certain routes to be changed. The assessment is

that estimated second-round effects on the climate as a result of increased mileage and

emissions are insignificant.

Installation and servicing of offshore wind power can also involve emissions that affect the

climate, but in relation to the input of renewable energy, these emissions are considered to be

insignificant.

Guidance on nature conservation and particular consideration - carbon sequestration

The marine spatial plan provides guidance on both nature conservation (N) and particular

consideration for high nature values (n). Marine areas that are protected against disturbances

and impacts can generally be assumed to have better conditions both to deal with climate change

by conserving biodiversity, and better conditions to store carbon as they are to some extent

protected from physical disturbances. There are no data or figures that describe the potential and

ability for carbon sequestration in different benthic habitats and sediments. Norwegian

researchers have mapped carbon sequestration in Norwegian marine areas, and concluded that

benthic habitats of different character have different abilities and conditions to contribute to

carbon sequestration, both in shorter and longer time perspectives, an important conclusion of

TWh Climate impact

Offshore wind

energy (11 000

tonnes CO2-

equivalent/TWh)

Nordic residual mix

(524 100 tonnes

CO2-equivalent/

TWh)

Potential

CO2-

equivalent

reduction

Potential

reduction in

relation to

Sweden’s

emissions in

2023

Existing offshore wind

power in

Skagerrak/Kattegat

0 0 0 0 0%

Zero alternatives

(permitted projects)

7 77 000 3 668 700 3 591 700 7%

Proposal for a marine

spatial plan

21 157 300 7 494 630 7 337 330 15%

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the study is that benthic habitats that are left undisturbed have greater potential to act as natural

carbon sinks (Diesing et al., 2024).

In Skagerrak/Kattegat there are unique benthic habitats, with great variation in biodiversity and

also deep sea channels in the north. The marine spatial plan guides the use of nature, and

particular consideration for high nature values on a total area of approximately 5 386 square

kilometres, which corresponds to just over 56 percent of the marine spatial plan area of

Skagerrak/Kattegat. The largest proportion, 33 percent, consists of large N, and 23 percent is

particular consideration for high nature values (small-n). The proposal for the high nature value

area has been extended by two areas compared to adopted marine spatial plans (see section

5.2.6). Marine spatial planning as such is only a small part of, and has no decisive role in, the

ocean management processes that decide on guidelines for human activities in protected areas.

However, the guidance on particular consideration is considered to be able to contribute

positively to the conservation of marine environments to a greater extent than if the guidance had

not been provided. As mentioned in previos assessments, there is neither data nor an established

method to calculate or quantify the extent and rate of carbon storage in Skagerrak/Kattegat, to

investigate this further can lead to a better understanding of the climate benefits of conserving

and protecting marine ecosystems.

Adaptation to climate change

In the marine spatial plan area of Skagerrak/Kattegat, data for climate refugias have not been

available as a basis for selection in areas with particular consideration to high nature values,

which means that this perspective is lacking. More measures of the ability of ecosystems and

marine species to adapt to climate change may also need to be taken into account in marine

spatial planning, such as connectivity and genetic variation (Havenhand & Dahlgren, 2017).

Landscape

In Skagerrak/Kattegat, the greatest impact is on the landscape in southern Halland, but there are

also effects in the northern Skagerrak/Kattegat, where several areas provide a cumulative effect.

Energy area V364 west of Halmstad is expected to have a potential large negative effect on

landscapes. The nearby energy area V317 is estimated to have a medium negative effect on the

landscape. These areas are almost entirely within the territorial boundary and are therefore

relatively close to the coast. For V352 and V359 the risk of negative effect is considered to be

small and for V360 marginal as the area is far from land. Figure 69 below shows the estimated

negative effect of the respective energy area in Skagerrak/Kattegat.

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Figure 69. Potential negative effect on the landscape of proposed energy areas in Skagerrak/Kattegat. In the energy areas, dark color shows great effect and light color shows little effect. Accumulated visibility from land is shown over the sea and visibility of energy areas is shown over land.

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Area-specific assessments

Skagerrak

In the northern part of Skagerrak/Kattegat, it is especially the energy areas V352 and V359 that

are considered to cause some effect on the landscape. V352 tends to have the greatest negative

effect on the northern Bohus coast, where the Kosteröarna islandsand its national park stand out

along with the area west of Havstenssund, Grebbestad, Fjällbacka, and Väderöarna. The energy

area is about 25 kilometer from the Kosteröarna islands and about 32 kilometer from Grebbestad.

Following the landscape analysis, V359 tends to have the greatest negative effect on landscapes

around the areas around western Tjörn, Marstrand, Pater-Noster, and Gothenburg's northern

archipelago, including the islands Rörö, Hälsö, Öckerö and Björkö. The distance from V359 to

Gothenburg's northern archipelago is about 18 kilometer and to Marstrand about 20 kilometer.

In Skagerrak/Kattegat, the plan's energy areas are relatively far from land, but its size contributes

to a relatively greater negative effect on the landscape. The report ‘Storskalig vindkraft I

Västerhavet – Landskapsbild 2023-11-30’ (Ramböll, 2023) analyses the impact on the landscape

in more detail, in particular the potential for reducing effects by dividing areas into smaller parts

with open views between them.

Kattegat

In Kattegat, V317 is estimated to have the greatest landscape impact on the coastal areas around

Morups tånge and Falkenberg down towards Steninge. The energy area is located about 10

kilometer from Falkenberg. Worth mentioning is that V317 is located in the shadow of sight from

V305 (zero alternative) to the Halland coast, but when established together with V305 can be

perceived as a larger contiguous area if the landscape is viewed southwards from the north of the

energy areas, for example from Träslövsläge or Morups tånge.

For V364, the energy area is considered to have the greatest impact on the landscape in the

areas around a larger part of the coast of Halland, as well as the Bjäre peninsula. This impact

extends mainly from Falkenberg, along Halmstad and down towards Laholmsbukten. The

northern and western parts of Bjärehalvön together with Hallands Väderö are affected. V364 is

located about 16 kilometer from Tyludden and 13 kilometer from Hallands Väderö. V317 (and

V305) have a distance of 6 kilometer to V364, which may contribute to them not being perceived

as a coherent energy area.

Other impacts on landscapes

Energy area V352 is located about 27 kilometers from Fjällbacka archipelago landscape

protection area that may be negatively affected by the establishment of offshore wind power. The

entire coastline of Skagerrak/Kattegat is also covered by areas for unbroken coast or high-

exploited coast (Chapter 4 of the Environmental Code). V352 is located about 12.5 kilometers

from the coastal area and archipelago in Bohuslän. Values in this so-called national landscape

include, among other things, the originality of the entire area, connected beautiful and original

landscape sections and lookout points, and other values linked to the landscape image. The area

includes values with areas of some originality and other environments linked to the landscape

(Länsstyrelsen, 2000) that may be affected by the energy area. In the northern part of

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Skagerrak/Kattegat there is also Kosterhavet National Park about 11.5 kilometers from energy

area V352. In addition to high marine nature values, the national park also has a rich cultural and

natural landscape. In Kattegat, the coast of Halland is covered by high-exploited coast of national

interest. V317 is located less than a kilometre from the area and V364 about 5 kilometres from

the area and Skåne's northern part of the national interest high-exploited coast. The landscape

protection area Vesslunda about 16 kilometer from both energy areas and Strandområdet Påarp-

Fylleån estuary about 27 kilometers from V364 is considered to be visually affected by the

establishment of wind power.

Cumulative and transboundary effects

In Skagerrak/Kattegat, areas in Norway and Denmark can be affected by energy areas in the

marine spatial planning area. For example, V352 in Skagerrak may have negative landscape

effects on areas within the Norwegian national park Ytre Hvaler, as well as the coastal areas

south of Sandefjord and Larvik. Further south, the V359 can have a negative landscape effect on

Danish Skagen about 30 kilometer away, as well as marginal effects on the northern parts of

Læsø over 40 kilometer away. In Kattegat, it is primarily the Danish island of Anholt that can be

affected by energy areas in the plan area. Anholt is located approximately 34 kilometers and 36

kilometers from V317 and V364 respectively.

Neighbouring energy areas will have a synergetic cumulative effect on the landscape on the

coast of Skagerrak/Kattegat, despite some gaps between energy areas. From many viewpoints

along the coast, several wind farms can be visible in good weather conditions. Based on the

number of energy areas, their size, relatively coastal location and its location along the coast with

relatively even distances, the cumulative impact in Kattegat is estimated to be large. In

Skagerrak, V359 together with the authorised V357 can entail cumulative effects alternating its

specific assessed effects. The cumulative effects from the northernmost energy areas are

estimated to be smaller as the V360 is located almost 50 kilometers from the mainland.

Cultural environment

Indirect influence – National interest in cultural heritage conservation, Chapter 3, Section 6 of the

Environmental Code

In the marine spatial plan area of Skagerrak/Kattegat, there are three energy areas that are

considered to entail a risk of large negative impact on national interest claims for cultural heritage

conservation: V359 outside Öckerö, V317 outside Falkenberg and V364 outside Halmstad. These

areas lie wholly or partly within the territorial sea boundary and are therefore relatively close to

the coast. Another area is considered to have a risk of medium negative effect on cultural

heritage conservation: V352 outside Koster. Finally, energy area V360 is considered to be able to

give rise to a risk of marginal negative effect on cultural heritage management. The energy areas

V303, V305, V357 and V361 are not subject to an impact assessment as there are permitted

projects in the area and are therefore included in our zero alternative. In addition to V360, other

energy areas in Skagerrak/Kattegat are listed with particular consideration to high cultural

heritage values (little-k). The guidance on particular consideration for high cultural heritage values

is considered to entail adaptations of the location and design of wind farms regarding, for

example, the location and height of wind turbines in order to reduce the impact on the specific

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cultural heritage sites concerned. Figure 70 below shows the estimated negative impact of the

respective energy area by colour code.

Figure 70. Potential indirect negative effect of energy areas on national interest claims for cultural environment in Skagerrak/Kattegat. Dark color shows great effect and light color shows little effect.

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Skagerrak

V352 is considered to be likely to have a negative effect primarily on the national interest claim

Koster. The cultural environment includes archipelago, agricultural and fishing villages with older

cultural landscapes. Expressions of national interest are described to lie primarily in the

environment linked to the structure of the landscape, agriculture, coastal settlements related to

fishing, and beach resort life. In addition to the national interest being within the bounds of spatial

dominance/competition to V352, the energy area may affect the communication and recreation

environment where unobstructed views are an essential expression. It may also affect fishing

villages, urban environments, coastal and archipelago environments, coastal and shippers'

communities where adjacent coastal and marine landscapes are an essential physical

expression.

V359 is expected to give rise to a risk of negative impact mainly on several national interest

claims, mainly Pater Noster, Marstrand, Burösund (Hällsö – Burö et al. islands), Styrsö parish,

Åstol and Tumlehed. The national interest claims are covered by communication environment,

small town environment, seaside resort, coastal and archipelago environment, ancient site

environment, institutional environment, cognitive environment, fishing village and coastal

communities. Expressions of national interest are described mainly in lighthouses and pilot sites,

defence installations and the silhouette of Carlsten Fortress, churches, town halls and homes

from the 17th century onwards, seaside resorts, port environments, plots, ancient sites in the form

of communities from the Stone and Bronze Age, agricultural settlements, fishing activities,

quarantine facility and rock paintings. In addition to the national interest claims being within the

bounds of spatial dominance/competition to V359, the energy area may affect the archaeological

environment, communication environment, recreation environment and defence environment

where free views are an essential expression. It may also affect fishing villages, urban

environments and coastal and shipping communities where adjacent coastal and marine

landscapes are an essential physical expression.

Kattegat

V317 is considered to be likely to have a negative impact primarily on the national interest claims

Vastaddalen and Träslövsläge. The national interest claims are covered by, among other things,

agricultural landscapes with plains, ancient relics, church environment, mill environment, coastal

environment and fishing village. Expressions of national interest are described to lie primarily in

prehistoric sites, agricultural buildings from the 19th century, coastal cottages, fishing village with

protected natural harbor, and unique mill facility at Berte. In addition to the national interest claims

being within the bounds of spatial dominance/competition to V317, the energy area may affect the

archaeological, communication, recreation and defense environment where unobstructed views

are an essential expression. It may also affect fishing villages, the urban environment and the

coastal and shipping community, where adjacent coastal and marine landscapes are an essential

physical expression.

V364 is considered to be likely to have a negative impact primarily on the national interest claims

Vastaddalen, Gröthögarna, Segelstorp, Dagshög, Tyludden – Tylöns lighthouse site and Båstad –

Norrviken gardens. The national interest claims include small-scale cultural environments and

agricultural landscapes with plains, ancient relics, church environment, mill environment, coastal

landscape, village environment, ancient and medieval coastal environment, seaside resort,

recreational environment, and garden. The claims of national interest express prehistoric sites,

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farm buildings from the 19th century, coastal cottages, medieval buildings, unique mill plant at

Berte, burial cairns, line of sights along the beach and out to sea, 19th century farms, farmland,

port, shipping and shipbuilding, the Bronze Age mound Dagshög, fishing villages, seaside

resorts, and Båstad with its location and port. These cultural environments are sensitive to large-

scale wind farms that can break historically functional links and complicate the understanding of

the history that the cultural environments represent. In addition to these national interest claims

being within the bounds of spatial dominance/competition to V364, the energy area may affect

communication, archaeological, recreational and defence environments where unobstructed

views are an essential expression. It may also affect fishing villages, urban environments, coastal

and shipping communities where adjacent coastal and marine landscapes are an essential

physical expression.

Direct impact

In the marine spatial plan area of Skagerrak/Kattegat there are a number of registered marine

archaeological sites in both the proposed energy areas and the energy areas included in the zero

alternative. Figure 71 shows marine archaeological sites within and outside energy areas.

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Figure 71. Risk of impact on marine archaeological sites.

- 227 -

V359 has the most registered marine archaeological sites in the area with 15. V364 has six

registered sites. V317, V352 and V360 have no recorded marine archaeological sites in its area.

Table 28 provides an overview of the number of marine archaeological sites for individual

proposed energy areas in Skagerrak/Kattegat. Note that the compilation only refers to the sites

that are registered in the Swedish National Heritage Board's Cultural Environment Register

(Riksantikvarieämbetetet, u.y.). Since knowledge of the existence of marine archaeological sites

in Swedish waters is not complete, the establishment of offshore wind power should be preceded

by marine archaeological investigations where there may be marine archaeological sites (County

Administrative Boards, 2024).

Table 28. Number of recorded marine archaeological sites per energy area in Skagerrak/Kattegat. Source: The Swedish National Heritage Board's Cultural Environment Register (Riksantikvarieämbetetet, u.y.).

Energy area Number of marine archaeological sites

V317 0

V352 0

V359 15

V360 0

V364 6

Indirect and direct impact – Regional value areas

In the marine spatial plan area of Skagerrak/Kattegat there are five energy areas that are subject

to an impact assessment, the remaining areas have been granted a permit. Two areas are

considered to have a risk of large negative impact on marine cultural heritage: V359 and V364.

These areas are partly within the territorial sea boundary and are therefore relatively close to the

coast. An energy area is considered to have a medium negative effect: V352. For V317 the risk of

negative effects on the cultural environment is considered to be small and for V360 marginal.

V303, V305, V357 and V361 are permitted and therefore not subject to impact assessment. In

Figure 72 below, using a colour code, the estimated negative impact of each energy area on

marine cultural heritage values is shown.

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Figure 72. Indirect and direct negative impact on regional cultural heritage value areas.

- 229 -

Skagerrak

In the far north, energy area V352 is expected to have a negative effect on the marine cultural

heritage values Koster and Väderöarna. The impact in this case is primarily visual, as visibility

towards the free horizon from a number of viewpoints in the value areas is important for the

understanding of their cultural environments. In Kosterhavet there are particularly important line

of sights between Ursholmen and Väderöarna, Lindön, and Koster archipelago. In the

Väderöarna islands value area, the view of the lighthouse environment at Väderöbod, between

Storön and the Northern Väderöarna islands archipelago, as well as between Väderöarna and

Fjällbacka archipelago is particularly sensitive to visual influences. Both Kosterhavet and

Väderöarna include the marine spatial plan area rare cultural environment type communication

environment, and are part of national interest unbroken coast.

V359 directly overlaps with the North Kattegat , a value area below the surface with a large

number of shipwrecks. Norra Kattegatt refers to values below the water surface, which is why the

risk of negative impact primarily refers to physical impact in the construction and

decommissioning of foundations, cables or other infrastructure. The value area includes a large

number of sites from mine blasted and sunk ships from the two world wars and is considered an

important educational testimony of the 20th century world wars. The North Kattegat also includes

the sinking of the Swedish submarine Ulven. V359 has a direct overlap with about 28 percent of

the value area. For energy area V359 there is a risk of direct impact on cultural heritage values

through the cable laying or other infrastructure outside the energy area, both on the seabed and

on land. However, this risk is difficult to estimate without information on the exact location of such

infrastructure. Furthermore, V359 risks having an indirect impact on cultural environments in the

value areas Marstrand-Pater Noster and Känsö. Visual connections between cultural heritage

buildings and a view towards the horizon are essential for the understanding of these cultural

environments, which should be taken into account when developing wind power in the area

(County Administrative Boards, 2024).

Kattegat

V317 is expected to have a negative effect on the value areas Morups tånge and Träslövsläge-

Gamla Köpstad-Galtabäck. For Morups tånge, the line of sight towards the horizon from the

lighthouse site in the direction of Anholt is particularly important and the area around Korshamn,

both on land and on the seabed, is considered sensitive to cabling regarding ancient relics. Within

Träslövsläge-Gamla Köpstad-Galtabäck, the free lines of sight towards the horizon from the ports

in Träslövsläge and Gamla Köpstad are particularly significant. The area around the bay of Lerjan

is rich in marine archaeological sites, which are sensitive to interventions both on land and on the

seabed (County Administrative Boards, 2024).

V364 is considered to entail a risk of indirect impact on the value areas Tyludden-Tylön,

Bjärehalvön and Kullahalvön. All areas are sensitive to visual effects from the establishment of

tall and area large facilities, but assessment of consideration distances needs to be based on

site-specific conditions. Tyludden-Tylön, Bjärehalvön and Kullahalvön include all areas with high

potential for marine archaeological sites that should be investigated before any cable laying. Like

V317, V364 is considered to be likely to have a negative effect on Morups tånge (County

Administrative Boards, 2024).

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Other impacts on cultural environment

In Skagerrak/Kattegat, V352 is considered to have a negative effect on the national interest for

unbroken coast (Chapter 4, Section 3 of the Environmental Code) of Northern Bohuslän. Within

the national interest, no tall objects may occur, which means that higher objects within V352

about 12.5 kilometers away means that the visual effects are considered to be large. The area

has, among other things, high-quality archaeological sites, older buildings and scientific cultural

values that may be affected visually. The pristine nature and view of the untouched horizon are

important experiences for the northern Bohuslän coast that risk being lost. The landscape

protection area Fjällbacka archipelago is located about 27.5 kilometres from V352, which is

considered to have indirect negative effects on the protection area. Kosterhavet National Park is

located about 11.5 kilometers from energy area V352 and includes high cultural heritage values

that may be affected by energy area V352. V359 is located about 7.5 kilometers from the national

interest for high-exploited coast Södra Bohuslän (Chapter 4, Section 4 of the Environmental

Code). However, the national interest is considered to have greater resilience for offshore wind

power in V359 compared to V352. According to Västra Götaland County Administrative Board,

the impact is not greater than allowed. However, cultural environments such as high-quality

archaeological sites, older settlements and scientific cultural values (Länsstyrelsen, 2000) may be

indirectly affected. In Kattegat there is a national interest for high-exploited coast along the entire

coast of Halland and Skåne. Both V317 and V364 are expected to have indirect visual effects on

national interests, but no large effects.

Cumulative and transboundary effects

In Kattegat, there is a risk that cultural environments are indirectly affected by Danish energy

areas. The Kullahalvön peninsula value area is located 19.5 kilometres from an energy area in

the Danish marine spatial plan. In Skagerrak there is a larger energy area east of Skagen located

25 kilometers from the value area Känsö and the national interest Styrsö parish.

The Swedish energy areas V303, V357 and V359 are close to the Danish zone and can affect

cultural environments in Denmark, not least at Anholt and in Skagen.

In Skagerrak/Kattegat there are several cultural environments that may be affected cumulatively

by the establishment of wind power in energy areas. However, the cumulative effects tend to

concentrate in Kattegat, given the energy areas already included in the zero alternative. V352 is

expected to give indirect negative cumulative effects for up to 13 national interest claims for

cultural heritage conservation and four marine value areas to a varied extent at a distance of up

to 70 kilometers. V359 is the energy area that is expected to affect the most national interest

claims for cultural heritage conservation, up to 31. V359 is also expected to affect seven marine

value areas indirectly, as well as the North Kattegat directly given its direct overlap with the value

area. In Kattegat, V317 can entail indirect cumulative effects for up to 16 national interest claims

for cultural heritage conservation and eleven marine value areas. V364 is reported to have

indirect cumulative effects on 15 national interest claims for cultural heritage conservation and ten

marine value areas.

For cumulative effects on specific cultural environments, it is expected that there will be less

indirect cumulative effects in Skagerrak, given that the energy areas are further out into the sea

compared to those in Kattegat. However, some cumulative effects may occur when establishing

V352 and V360, mainly in the value area Väderöarna and Ramsvikslandet. When establishing the

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licensed V357 together with V359, the cumulative effects may be greater. Here, the greatest

cumulative impact on cultural environments will be on Pater Noster, Marstrand and the western

part of Orust. The combined direct and indirect effects of V359 on the North Kattegat value area

and the previous mentioned areas are expected to entail relatively large cumulative effects. In

Kattegat, V317 and V364, combined with energy areas in the zero alternative and its relative

proximity, can have indirect cumulative effects on cultural environments along the coast of

Halland and northwestern Skåne. Morups tånge, Träslövsläge and Vastaddalen are the cultural

environments that are cumulatively primarily affected by the establishment of V317 in

combination with energy areas in the zero alternative. V364 in combination with surrounding

energy areas can give indirect cumulative effects mainly on Tyludden-Tylön.

Table 29 below shows the total sum of cumulative impacts from each energy area in

Skagerrak/Kattegat. The highest cumulative impact on national interest claims for cultural

heritage conservation and marine value areas is V364.

Table 29. Cumulative effects in Skagerrak/Kattegat from energy areas on national interest claims for cultural conservation and marine value areas, based on the number of cultural environments affected, as well as its proximity. The higher the value, the higher the cumulative impact. The method is described in the method section Chapter 8.

Energy area Cumulative impact on national interest claims for cultural heritage conservation

Cumulative impact on marine value areas

V317 64,5 47

V352 60,5 21

V359 95 43

V360 16,5 7

V364 104,5 49,5

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Effects on the management of water, soil and the physical

environment in general

Energy extraction

In the planning area Skagerrak/Kattegat there are good conditions for wind power with high wind

speeds. In the northern part it is deep, which requires wind farms with floating foundations. From

north of Gothenburg and south, it is shallower and possible with bottom-fixed foundations. The

transmission network on land is well developed since the Ringhals nuclear power plant is located

on the coast of Halland.

Despite good conditions, there are several challenges. The plan area is relatively small and with

limited space. It is also relatively crowded with a lot of ongoing activities in the sea areas and

along the coast with potential conflicts of interest. Coastal areas are also relatively densely

populated. Extensive national interest claims exist in both coastal and marine areas including:

recreation, cultural environment, nature values, shipping and ports, and commercial fishing.

The plan's guidance on energy extraction is based on a adopted marine spatial plan, a national

interest in wind power, planning documents and Proposals for suitable energy extraction areas in

the marine spatial plan (Energy Agency 2023a), which is handled as a public interest of

substantial importance. The adopted marine spatial plan, national interest claims for wind power

and municipal comprehensive plans have also been taken into account.

The draft marine spatial plan includes nine areas for energy extraction. Areas cover a total area

of approximately 1,060 km2, corresponding to approximately 11 percent of the plan area and are

estimated to generate an annual electricity production of approximately 20 TWh, based on

assumptions of 5 MW/km2 and 4000 full load hours, see plan document part 6.1 for further

description (the Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2025). There are four

permitted parks within the marine spatial plan area (V303, V361, V305, V357).

The map below, Figure 73, shows all energy areas in the marine spatial plan, zero alternatives

(permitted) and areas in the initial planning documentation, Proposals for suitable energy

extraction areas in the marine spatial plan presented in 2023 (Energy Agency 2023a). The map

also shows a grading of the conditions for energy extraction in each energy area, based on wind

and depth conditions. Note that the classification is limited to these factors. Areas with a lower

classification may have other advantages, such as proximity to connectivity or storage facilities,

or may have conflicts of interest. Higher rated areas may in turn have disadvantages such as

distance or limitations in connection or storage capacity or more or more severe conflicts of

interest. With regard to conflicts of interest, see the overall assessment, as well as the respective

assessment aspects and the need for adjustments when establishing a wind farm.

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Figure 73. Map of energy areas in plan proposals, zero alternatives, initial planning basis, and conditions for energy extraction based on wind and depth conditions.

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Area-specific assessments, nature and conditions for energy extraction

All energy areas in Skagerrak/Kattegat are included in the documentation on suitable energy

extraction areas for marine spatial plans presented in 2023 (Energy Agency 2023a). The

assessment of each energy area and its conditions for energy extraction has here been limited to

assessment of the nature of wind and depth conditions and is made on the basis of a three-point

scale as shown in Table 30 below. For more information see Section 8. Method.

Table 30. Grouping, for the wind speed and depth indicators.

Group/points Wind speed, medium Depth, medium

1 Less than 8,5 m/s Depths exceeding -70 m

2 Between 8,5 and 9 m/s Between -40 and -70 m

3 Greater than 9 m/s Founder than -40 m